Antigenic Variation
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Table of contents
- Contentsv
- Contributorsvii
- Forewordxi
- Prefacexv
- 1 Mechanisms of Antigenic Variation: an Overview1
- Random 'unprogrammed' variation2
- Programmed antigenic variation: general principles3
- Recombinational mechanisms of antigenic variation4
- In situe activation of surface antigen genes by altering the size of simple DNA repeats or by DNA mo8
- Gene families controlled without detectable DNA alternations10
- As a survival strategy, programmed antigenic variation is not as simple as it looks12
- Unsolved problems and challenges13
- 2 HIV Variation - a Question of Signal-to-Noise16
- The HIV lentiviruses16
- Mutation, recombination and fixation rates18
- A touch of 'flu21
- An inside look at HIV replication22
- Tempo of HIV replication23
- Gulliver and HIVland24
- Rampant recombination25
- If not by mutation, how does HIV persist?28
- In vivo most viral variation is basically noise29
- 3 Calicivirus33
- Clinical, antigenic and genetic variability36
- Antigenic structure of the capsid41
- Virus evolution42
- Conclusion47
- 4 Influenza - the Chameleon Virus52
- X-ray crystallography of influenza haemagglutinin59
- Genetic variation of the haemagglutinin60
- X-ray crystalography of influenza neuraminidase61
- The biological properties of antibody to influenza HA63
- Are T cells responses important in the immune response to influen za HA?64
- The practical consequences of antigenic change in HA and NA: pandemics and epidemics65
- The conflicting theories of the origin of pandemic influenza68
- The 1918/19 great pandemic of influenza A and subsequent outbreaks in humans caused by influenza A68
- The 1957 'Asian' influenza pandemic71
- The vanishing pandemic virus72
- The 'Hong Kong' virus pandemic and the period 1968-200373
- A curiosity and a warning: reappearance of a influenza A (H1N1) virus in 197773
- Nucleotide sequence analysis of the influenza HA gene from samples from the great 1918 pandemic74
- Could the human infections in Hong Kong in 1997 with avian influenza A viruses warn of a new pandem75
- Biological factors which drive antigenic drift of HA76
- Would influenza vaccine viruses replicated in MDCK cells ratehr than eggs be more immunogenic?79
- Conclusions80
- 5 Rotavirus84
- Virus classification and structure84
- Antigens and epidemiological markers86
- Pathogensis and immunity92
- 6 Haemophilus influenzae102
- Capsule phase variation103
- Phase variation mediated by simple nucleotide repeats103
- Phase variation by modulation of transcription105
- Phase variation mediated by tetranucleotide repeats106
- Factors influencing the rate of phase variation117
- 7 Phase Variation in Helicobacter Pylori lipopolysaccaride122
- H pylori LPS expresses blood group antigens124
- Phase variation in H pylori LPS Lewis antigens126
- Biological role of LPS phase variation133
- Lewis antigen mimicry and immune evasion134
- H pylori LPS phase variation and bacterial adhesion135
- 8 Genetic Variation in Pathogenic Neisseria Species142
- Genetic diversity and evolutionary adaptability of Neisseria species143
- Rapid micro-environmental adaptation145
- Molecular models for pilE variation149
- Genetic variation via the illegitimate route152
- Functional significance of genetic variation155
- 9 Candida albicans165
- The discovery of switching in C albicans166
- The white-opaque transition168
- The white-opaque transition affects the budding yeast cell morphology168
- Antigenic chagnes in the white-opaque transition170
- Switching involves differential gene expression176
- A contextual framework for investigating the mechamisms of gene regulation during switching179
- Phase-specific trans-acting factors185
- Possible switching mechanisms186
- Gross chromosomal rearrangements are not the basis of switching187
- The deacetylases play a role in the suppression of switching187
- Heat-induced mass conversion and a model for switching189
- The role of C albicans switching in pathogenesis191
- Switching in C glabrata193
- Phase varation in the fungi: general lessons and summary197
- 10 The MSG Gene Family and Antigenic Variation in the Fucus Pneumocystis carinii202
- P carinii is one species in a large fungal genus202
- P carinii and laboratory rats203
- P carinii has a gene family that confers the potential for antigenic variation204
- The MSG gene family is expressed in a way that could cause antigenic variation208
- Translation and transport of MSG probably involves the UCS212
- A protease family appears to have co-evolved with the MSG family214
- A third gene family closely related to MSG214
- Expression of a specific MSG is correlated with the presence of its cognate gene at the UCS locus215
- MSG and antigenic variation216
- On the possibility that the MSG gene family does not cause antigenic variation218
- Conclusion219
- 11 Trypanosome Antigenic Variation - a Heavy Investment in the Evasion of Immunity224
- Biology of antigenic variation224
- VSG genes and the genome228
- DNA recombination as the main driver of antigenic variation231
- Transcription control of metacyclic VSGS237
- Secondary phenotypes associated with antigenic variation238
- Conclusion238
- 12 Antigenic Variation in Anaplasma marginale and Ehrlichia (Cowdria) ruminatium243
- Phylogentic re-classification of A marginale and C ruminantium244
- Disease pathogenesis245
- Anaplasma marginale247
- Ehrlichia (Cowdria) ruminantium258
- Discussion and conclusion267
- 13 Antigenic Variation and its Significance to Babesia273
- The phenotype of antigenic variation in Babesia bovis274
- Probable mechanism of antigenic variation in B bovis281
- Association of antigenic variation with pathology286
- Future directions287
- 14 Antigenic Variation in Plasmodium falciparum and Other Plasmodium Species291
- Antigenic variation of infected red blood cells292
- Phenotypic/antigenic variation of merozoites309
- Antigenic diversity, another way of increasing the repertoire of genes312
- Conclusions312
- 15 Antigenic Variation in Borrelia: Relapsing Fever and Lyme Borreliosis319
- Ecology and epidemiology320
- Clinical manifestations and pathology322
- Morphology and physiology323
- Phylogeny and genetics325
- Pathogenesis327
- Immunity331
- Variable antigens332
- Evolution of variable antigens337
- Mechanisms of antigenic variation340
- 16 Surface Antigenic Variation in Giardia lamblia357
- Characteristics of antigenic variation in vitro358
- Characteristics of variant-specific surface proteins359
- Biology of variant-specific proteins364
- Role of immune and biological selection365
- Molecular mechanisms369
- 17 Free-living and Parasitic Ciliates375
- Paramecium variable surface antigens376
- I-antigens in the context of infection and immunity387
- 18 The Impact of Antigenic Variation on Pathogen Population Structure, Fitness and Dynamics403
- Influence of antigenic variation on pathogen fitness404
- Inter-strain competition and epidemiological constraints on diversity413
- Control of antigenically variable pathogens419
- Conclusions422
- Appendix: model details424
- Index433
The topic of antigenic variation is important in both biology and medicine. It is of enormous interest, as it describes the process(es) whereby microorganisms 'shift shape', by genetic rearrangement or otherwise. In medical terms, this has a major impact on the infectious disease process, since the immune system has great difficulty in keeping up with this variation, and thus eliminating the infectious agent. Antigenic variation is a major method by which microbes evade the immune response, and persist in the body.
The broad scope of the book appeals to all those working in the field of infectious disease, immunology of infection, pathogenesis, molecular biology and also to evolutionary biologists. Topics covered include not only bacterial species, and viruses such as influenza, HIV, Rotavirus, but also eukaryotic parasites - one of the most fascinating groups of organisms exhibiting this behaviour.
Comprehensive coverage of antigenic variation from viruses to parasites
Discussions devoted to molecular mechanisms of host evasion
Detailed descriptions of host/pathogen interactions
The broad scope of the book appeals to all those working in the field of infectious disease, immunology of infection, pathogenesis, molecular biology and also to evolutionary biologists. Topics covered include not only bacterial species, and viruses such as influenza, HIV, Rotavirus, but also eukaryotic parasites - one of the most fascinating groups of organisms exhibiting this behaviour.
Comprehensive coverage of antigenic variation from viruses to parasites
Discussions devoted to molecular mechanisms of host evasion
Detailed descriptions of host/pathogen interactions