Citrus Fruit: Biology, Technology and Evaluation
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Table of contents
- CONTENTSv
- PREFACExiii
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSxvii
- Chapter 1 Introduction1
- I. Citrus Fruit Production and Prospects1
- II. Postharvest Overview6
- III. Conclusion10
- References10
- Chapter 2 Commercial Fresh Citrus Cultivars and Producing Countries13
- I. Citrus Cultivars for Fresh Fruit Market13
- A. Sweet Orange13
- B. Mandarin18
- C. Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfadyen)22
- D. Pummelo or Shaddock (C. grandis or C. maxima)23
- E. Hybrids of Pummelo and Grapefruit24
- F. Lemon (Citrus limon)24
- G. Acid Lime27
- H. Sweet Lime (Citrus limettioides Tanaka)28
- I. Citron (Citrus medica Lin.)28
- J. Calamondin (Citrus madurensis Loureiro)29
- K. Natsudaidai (Citrus natsudaidai Hayata)29
- L. Hassaku (Citrus hassaku Tanaka)30
- M. Kumquat (Fortunella spp.)30
- N. Bael (Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa.)30
- II. Countries, Varieties Grown, and Harvesting Seasons31
- A. Northern Hemisphere31
- B. Southern Hemisphere55
- References63
- Chapter 3 Postharvest Losses67
- I. Mandarins69
- A. 'Nagpur' Mandarin69
- B. 'Coorg' Mandarin70
- C. 'Khasi' Mandarin71
- II. Acid Lime74
- III. Sweet Orange and Grapefruit75
- IV. Measures to Reduce Losses77
- References77
- Chapter 4 Preharvest Factors Affecting Fruit Quality and Postharvest Life79
- I. Orchard Health80
- A. Diseases That Affect Fruit Quality in the Field80
- B. Insect-Pests and Mites82
- II. Tree Nutrition and Cultivation Practices87
- III. Preharvest Sprays89
- A. Auxins90
- B. Gibberellins91
- C. Other Chemicals94
- D. Ethephon and Other Chemicals for Fruit Color Improvement95
- E. Fungicides96
- IV. Climatic Factors97
- References97
- Chapter 5 Fruit Morphology, Anatomy, and Physiology103
- I. Fruit Morphology103
- A. Fruit Characteristics104
- II. Fruit Anatomy106
- III. Fruit Physiology109
- A. Respiratory Activity109
- B. Biochemistry of Respiration112
- C. Transpiration113
- D. Role of Ethylene115
- E. Color Development and Regreening117
- F. Fruit Abscission118
- G. Fruit Hormonal Balance118
- References121
- Chapter 6 Fruit Biochemistry125
- I. Carbohydrates127
- A. Monosaccharides127
- B. Oligosaccharides127
- C. Sugar Derivatives129
- D. Changes in Sugars during Fruit Growth and Storage131
- E. Polysaccharides132
- F. Changes in Polysaccharides during Fruit Growth and Maturation134
- II. Organic Acids135
- A. Changes in Organic Acids During Fruit Growth and Maturation136
- B. Physiological Role of Organic Acids137
- III. Nitrogenous Compounds138
- A. Amino Acids138
- B. Amines141
- C. Proteins142
- D. Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids143
- IV. Enzymes144
- A. Polysaccharides and Pectic Enzyme Complex145
- B. Sugar Metabolizing Enzymes146
- C. Other Important Enzymes148
- V. Lipids, Waxes, and Other Related Compounds150
- A. Cutin152
- B. Waxes152
- C. Terpenoids and Steroids153
- VI. Pigments154
- VII. Phenols, Flavonoids, and Limonoids157
- A. Phenols157
- B. Flavonoids161
- C. Limonoids163
- VIII. Vitamins166
- IX. Inorganic Constituents168
- X. Citrus Oils and Volatile Flavoring Compounds170
- A. Tangerine and Mandarin172
- B. Orange173
- C. Grapefruit and Pummelo175
- D. Lemon176
- E. Lime178
- F. Other Citrus and Related Fruits178
- References178
- Chapter 7 Growth, Maturity, Grade Standards, and Physico-Mechanical Characteristics of Fruit191
- I. Citrus Fruit and Climate191
- II. Growth and Development193
- A. Mineral Nutrition and Fruit Growth196
- B. Fruit Maturation197
- III. Indices of Maturity, Fruit Grades, and Standards198
- A. Indices of Maturity (Internal Standards)198
- B. Fruit Grades (External Standards)202
- IV. Physical and Mechanical Characteristics206
- References209
- Chapter 8 Harvesting215
- I. Methods of Harvesting215
- A. Manual Harvesting215
- B. Mechanical Harvesting222
- References226
- Chapter 9 Preparation for Fresh Fruit Market229
- I. Degreening230
- A. Degreening Conditions231
- B. Ethephon, Ethylene, and Other Compounds Enhancing Rind Color233
- C. Degreening Rooms239
- D. Changes in Physico-Chemical Attributes of Degreened Fruit241
- E. Respiration242
- F. Fruit Color and Mass Loss in Degreened Fruit242
- G. Decay and Disorders in Degreened Fruit243
- H. Color Improvement with Other Methods245
- II. Packinghouse Operations245
- A. Mechanized Operations245
- B. Commodity-specific Operations257
- C. Care During Handling of Fruit on Packing Line261
- D. Manual versus Mechanical Operations261
- E. Packinghouse Environment, Worker Conditions, and Safety Rules262
- F. Sanitation262
- G. Wastewater Disposal263
- H. Economics and Energy Needs of Packinghouse Operations263
- I. Conventional Operations in Developing Countries and Recent Developments264
- J. Some Tips for Export of Citrus Fruits265
- III. Postharvest Treatments266
- A. Curing266
- B. Disinfection and Cleaning266
- C. Surface Coatings267
- D. Plant-Growth Regulators275
- E. Other Chemicals277
- References278
- Chapter 10 Packaging287
- I. Containers and Packaging Materials288
- A. Bulk Handling Containers288
- B. Containers for Transport/Shipment289
- C. Commodity-specific Containers292
- D. Filling and Packing of Boxes296
- E. Transportworthiness and Strength of the Boxes298
- F. Stacking and Handling300
- G. Packaging for Retail Market300
- II. Film-wrapping and Seal-packaging301
- A. Seal-packaging301
- B. Commodity-specific Response to Seal-Packaging302
- C. Advantages of Seal-packaging305
- III. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)307
- A. Plastic Films and Their Characteristics310
- B. Citrus Fruit Responses to Modified Atmosphere Packaging311
- References313
- Chapter 11 Precooling and Refrigeration319
- I. Temperature, RH, and Vapor pressure Deficit320
- II. Mechanical Refrigeration321
- A. Refrigeration Equipment and Cooling Plant322
- B. Construction of Cold Storage Rooms323
- C. Heat Load and Thermal Properties325
- III. Precooling326
- A. Effect of Precooling on Various Citrus Fruits327
- B. Packaging Containers and Their Alignment during Precooling328
- References331
- Chapter 12 Storage Systems and Response of Citrus Fruits333
- I. Storage Systems334
- A. Refrigerated Storage335
- B. Storage at Suboptimal or Chilling Temperatures345
- C. Controlled Atmosphere (CA)349
- D. Hypobaric Storage356
- E. Evaporative Cool Storage and Other Natural Systems356
- F. Storage Under Ambient Conditions361
- II. Removal of Ethylene from Storage Area362
- III. Changes in Fruit Composition during Storage362
- A. Total Soluble Solids, Sugars, and Acidity363
- B. Volatiles365
- C. Enzymes365
- D. Ascorbic Acid365
- E. Pectic Substances366
- F. Lipid Fraction366
- References366
- Chapter 13 Transportation375
- I. Road and Vehicle Condition376
- II. Surface Transport378
- A. Trailers/Trucks (Refrigerated and Non-refrigerated)380
- B. TOFC381
- C. Rail Cars382
- D. Reefer Containers (Refrigerated Containers)382
- E. Cargo Holds of Ships385
- III. Conditioning and Quarantine Treatments during Transportation386
- IV. Air Shipments387
- References388
- Chapter 14 Marketing and Distribution391
- I. Marketing Systems and Distribution392
- A. Japan392
- B. Taiwan393
- C. China393
- D. South Asia395
- E. Europe397
- F. Israel401
- G. South Africa401
- H. United States401
- I. Australia402
- References402
- Chapter 15 Irradiation403
- I. Ionizing Radiation403
- A. Irradiation Process404
- B. Possible Benefits of Irradiation in Citrus405
- C. Physiological, Physico-chemical, and Organoleptic Properties of Fruit409
- D. Phytotoxic Effect of Irradiation on Peel and Flesh413
- References415
- Chapter 16 Postharvest Diseases and Their Management417
- I. Postharvest Diseases417
- A. Decay from Field Infection418
- B. Decay from Postharvest Infection420
- C. Physiological Effects of Postharvest Infection422
- II. Pesticides, Residues, and Tolerances423
- A. Disinfectants and Fungicides423
- B. Postharvest Fungicide Treatments427
- C. Strategies against Decay and Resistance Development432
- D. Residues and Tolerances432
- III. Organic Postharvest Management435
- A. GRAS Chemicals437
- B. Bioagents (Microbial Antagonists)438
- C. Botanicals and Other Organic Compounds439
- D. Physical Methods440
- References444
- Chapter 17 Physiological Disorders and Their Management451
- I. Disorders Caused by Postharvest Factors452
- A. Chilling Injury452
- B. Oleocellosis (Rind-Oil Spot)454
- C. Rind Staining455
- D. Kohansho455
- E. Peteca455
- F. Red Blotch or Red-Colored Lesions456
- G. Stylar-End Breakdown456
- H. Stem-End Rind Breakdown (SERB)456
- II. Disorders Caused by Preharvest Factors457
- A. Freeze Injury457
- B. Granulation457
- C. Fruit Splitting or Cracking459
- D. Puffiness459
- E. Superficial Rind Pitting (SRP)460
- F. Creasing460
- G. Sunburn/Sunscald460
- References461
- Chapter 18 Postharvest Treatments for Insect Control465
- I. Fly-free-zone Protocol466
- II. Fruit-fly Disinfestation467
- A. Chemical Control467
- B. Physical Treatments467
- References472
- Chapter 19 Fruit Quality Control, Evaluation, and Analysis475
- I. Fruit Quality475
- A. Physical Parameters476
- B. Chemical Parameters476
- C. Physiological Parameters477
- II. Analysis of Quality Attributes and Instruments477
- A. Physical Attributes477
- B. Chemical Attributes484
- C. Physiological Attributes486
- D. Sensory Attributes490
- E. Fruit Sampling491
- F. Instruments Useful in Storage Atmosphere Management491
- III. Rapid Non-destructive Quality Evaluation and Application494
- A. External Quality Evaluation494
- B. Internal Quality Evaluation494
- IV. Quality Control and Assurance Systems495
- References498
- Chapter 20 Nutritive and Medicinal Value of Citrus Fruits501
- I. Nutritive Value of Citrus Fruits in the Human Diet501
- A. Calorific Value502
- B. Minerals504
- C. Dietary Fiber and Pectin505
- II. Therapeutic/Medicinal Value505
- A. Vitamins507
- B. Role of Citrus Fruits in Reducing Risk of Human Diseases509
- III. Nutritive and Medicinal Value of Bael (Aegle marmelos)512
- References512
- Chapter 21 Biotechnological Applications in Fresh Citrus Fruit515
- References518
- Chapter 22 World Fresh Citrus Trade and Quarantine Issues521
- I. Exports, Imports, and World Trade522
- A. Fresh Citrus Consumption Trend522
- B. Major Exporting Countries523
- C. Major Importing Countries527
- D. Fresh Citrus Trade Prospects529
- E. Barriers in Citrus Trade530
- II. Quarantine Issues531
- A. Quarantine Regulations532
- References533
- ANNEXURE I535
- ANNEXURE II537
- GLOSSARY539
- INDEX543
Post harvest biology and technology of citrus fruits is gaining importance as the therapeutic value of citrus fruits is realized and supported by the increase in health awareness among the general public.
This book is the most comprehensive reference on citrus fruit biology, biotechnology and quality. Basic and applied scientific information is interwoven to serve the researcher, marketer, scientist, nutritionist, or dietician. With discussions of fruit morphology, anatomy, physiology and biochemistry and chapters on growth phases, maturity standards, grades and physical and mechanical characteristics of citrus trees, this book provides the foundation for understanding growth, harvest and post harvest aspects of these important plants. Insect-pests and diseases, irrigation, nutrition and rootstocks are also addressed.
* Provides practical tips for post harvest management.
* Includes all aspects of citrus fruit biology, technology and quality evaluation.
* Discusses biotechnological applications and potential fresh citrus fruit quality improvement
* Evaluates medicinal and therapeutic applications and recent clinical findings
* Exhaustive glossary included
This book is the most comprehensive reference on citrus fruit biology, biotechnology and quality. Basic and applied scientific information is interwoven to serve the researcher, marketer, scientist, nutritionist, or dietician. With discussions of fruit morphology, anatomy, physiology and biochemistry and chapters on growth phases, maturity standards, grades and physical and mechanical characteristics of citrus trees, this book provides the foundation for understanding growth, harvest and post harvest aspects of these important plants. Insect-pests and diseases, irrigation, nutrition and rootstocks are also addressed.
* Provides practical tips for post harvest management.
* Includes all aspects of citrus fruit biology, technology and quality evaluation.
* Discusses biotechnological applications and potential fresh citrus fruit quality improvement
* Evaluates medicinal and therapeutic applications and recent clinical findings
* Exhaustive glossary included