Elsevier S & T

Electrochemical Sensors, Biosensors and their Biomedical Applications

Zhang, Xueji; Ju, Huangxian; Wang, Joseph

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Table of contents

Contentsv
List of contributorsxvii
Prefacexxi
Chapter 1 Nitric oxide (NO) electrochemical sensors1
1.1 Introduction1
1.1.1 Significance of nitric oxide in life science1
1.1.2 Methods of measurement of nitric oxide in physiology2
1.1.3 Advantages of electrochemical sensors for determination of NO2
1.2 Principles of determination of NO by electrochemical sensors3
1.3 Fabrication of electrodes for NO determination4
1.3.1 Clark type NO electrodes4
1.3.2 Modified carbon fiber NO microelectrodes5
1.3.3 Integrated NO microelectrodes6
1.3.4 Other NO electrodes7
1.4 Calibration of NO electrodes8
1.4.1 Calibration using an NO standard solution8
1.4.2 Calibration based on decomposition of SNAP9
1.4.3 Calibration based on chemical generation of NO9
1.5 Characterization of NO electrodes10
1.5.1 Sensitivity and detection limit11
1.5.2 Selectivity12
1.5.3 Response time12
1.5.4 Effect of temperature and pH on NO electrodes13
1.6 Selected applications of NO electrodes14
1.7 Concluding remarks and other directions23
1.8 Acknowledgments23
1.9 References23
Chapter 2 Biosensors for pesticides31
2.1 Introduction32
2.1.1 Need for pesticide biosensors32
2.1.2 Developments in pesticide biosensors32
2.1.3 Thrust areas for pesticide biosensors33
2.2 Biocatalysts used in pesticide biosensors33
2.2.1 Enzymes used in pesticide biosensors and their features33
2.2.2 Immobilization methods used in pesticide biosensors design34
2.3 Enzyme-based biosensors construction35
2.3.1 Pesticides measuring principles35
2.3.2 Inhibition-based biosensors35
2.3.3 Catalysis-based biosensors37
2.3.4 Flow injection biosensors38
2.3.5 Enzyme reactivation40
2.4 Pesticide immunosensors40
2.4.1 Detection methods for pesticide immunosensors42
2.4.2 Immunosensors for pesticides42
2.4.3 Regeneration of pesticide immunosensors46
2.5 Whole cell and tissue-based pesticide biosensors48
2.6 Major interfering compounds and sample pretreatment49
2.7 Conclusions49
2.8 Acknowledgments50
2.9 References50
Chapter 3 Electrochemical glucose biosensors57
3.1 Introduction57
3.2 Forty years of progress58
3.3 First-generation glucose biosensors59
3.3.1 Redox interferences59
3.3.2 Oxygen dependence61
3.4 Second-generation glucose biosensors61
3.4.1 Electron transfer between GOx and electrode surfaces61
3.4.2 Use of artificial mediators62
3.4.3 Attachment of electron-transfer relays62
3.5 In-vitro glucose testing63
3.6 Continuous real-time in-vivo monitoring65
3.6.1 Requirements65
3.6.2 Subcutaneous monitoring65
3.6.3 Towards non-invasive glucose monitoring66
3.7 Conclusions and outlook67
3.8 References67
Chapter 4 New trends in ion-selective electrodes71
4.1 Introduction71
4.1.1 State-of-the-art71
4.1.2 Most important biomedical applications of ion-selective electrodes73
4.2 Classical ion-selective electrodes77
4.2.1 Understanding of the operational principles77
4.2.2 Response characteristics: selectivity and detection limits81
4.2.3 Reference electrodes85
4.3 New transduction principles86
4.3.1 Polyion-selective electrodes86
4.3.2 Galvanostatically controlled sensors90
4.3.3 Voltammetric ion-selective electrodes95
4.3.4 Light-addressable potentiometric sensors96
4.4 New sensor materials98
4.4.1 Membrane components98
4.4.2 Solid contact102
4.4.3 Biocompatibility improvement103
4.5 Miniaturization104
4.5.1 Miniaturization104
4.5.2 Sensor arrays105
4.6 Future prospects and conclusions108
4.7 Acknowledgments109
4.8 References109
Chapter 5 Recent developments in electrochemical immunoassays and immunosensors115
5.1 Introduction115
5.2 The antibody–antigen interaction116
5.3 Immunoassays and immunosensors118
5.3.1 Competitive immunoassay systems118
5.3.2 Non-competitive immunoassay systems120
5.4 Modes of antibody immobilization122
5.4.1 Biotin–(strept)avidin interaction122
5.4.2 Antibody-binding proteins124
5.4.3 Conducting polymers125
5.4.4 Self-assembled monolayers126
5.4.5 Antibody fragments129
5.5 Electrochemical detection techniques130
5.5.1 Potentiometric immunosensors131
5.5.2 Amperometric immunosensors131
5.5.3 Voltammetric immunoassays134
5.5.4 Impedimetric immunoassays and immunosensors135
5.6 Microfluidic electrochemical immunoassay systems138
5.7 Concluding remarks139
5.8 References140
Chapter 6 Superoxide electrochemical sensors and biosensors: principles, development and application145
6.1 Chemistry and biochemistry of superoxide145
6.2 O[sub(2)][sup(–)] bioassay: an overview146
6.3 O[sub(2)][sup(€)] electrochemistry and O[sub(2)][sup(€)] electrochemical sensors147
6.4 Electrochemical sensors for O[sub(2)][sup(€)]148
6.4.1 Biosensors with enzymes other than SODs148
6.4.2 Brief introduction to SODs149
6.4.3 Electrochemistry of SODs151
6.4.4 SOD-based electrochemical biosensors for O[sub(2)][sup(–)]162
6.4.5 SOD-based micro-sized biosensors for O[sub(2)][sup(€)]174
6.5 Concluding remarks and other directions177
6.6 Acknowledgments177
6.7 References178
Chapter 7 Detection of charged macromolecules by means of field-effect devices (FEDs): possibilities187
7.1 Introductory part and status report187
7.2 Capacitance–voltage characteristics of a bare and functionalized EIS structure193
7.3 Direct electrostatic DNA detection by its intrinsic molecular charge197
7.4 New method for label-free electrical DNA detection201
7.5 Measurement results utilizing polyelectrolyte layers and synthetic DNA205
7.6 Conclusions and future perspectives208
7.7 Acknowledgments209
7.8 References209
Chapter 8 Electrochemical sensors for the determination of hydrogen sulfide production in biological213
8.1 Introduction214
8.1.1 Significance of H[sub(2)]S in the life sciences215
8.1.2 H[sub(2)]S measurement in biological samples216
8.2 Advantages of electrochemical sensors for H[sub(2)]S determination218
8.2.1 Electrochemistry218
8.2.2 Multi-sensor respirometry219
8.3 Fabrication of polarographic H[sub(2)]S sensors220
8.3.1 Macro polarographic H[sub(2)]S sensors220
8.3.2 Miniature polarographic H[sub(2)]S sensors220
8.4 Calibration of polarographic H[sub(2)]S sensors221
8.4.1 H[sub(2)]S stock solutions221
8.4.2 Chemical sources of H[sub(2)]S222
8.5 Characterization of polarographic H[sub(2)]S sensors222
8.5.1 Selectivity223
8.5.2 Sensitivity224
8.5.3 Detection limit226
8.5.4 Stability226
8.5.5 Reproducibility, precision and accuracy226
8.5.6 Linearity and dynamic response range227
8.5.7 Response time227
8.5.8 Reliability (maintenance-free working time)227
8.5.9 Biocompatibility227
8.6 Applications of polarographic H[sub(2)]S sensors in biological samples228
8.6.1 Measurement of H[sub(2)]S production228
8.6.2 Measurement of H[sub(2)]S consumption229
8.6.3 Simultaneous measurement of H[sub(2)]S level and vessel tension232
8.6.4 Measurement of steady-state H[sub(2)]S levels in blood and tissue233
8.7 Concluding remarks and future directions233
8.8 Acknowledgments233
8.9 References234
Chapter 9 Aspects of recent development of immunosensors237
9.1 Introduction237
9.1.1 General working principle of immunosensors237
9.1.2 Main performance characteristics of immunosensors in clinical analysis238
9.2 Immobilization of immunoactive elements239
9.2.1 Non-covalent interaction-based immobilization procedures239
9.2.2 Covalent interaction-based immobilization procedures241
9.3 Major types of immunosensors243
9.3.1 Electrochemical immunosensors243
9.3.2 Optical immunosensors246
9.3.3 Microgravimetric immunosensors248
9.3.4 Other kinds of immunosensors250
9.4 Conclusion and future trends251
9.5 References252
Chapter 10 Microelectrodes for in-vivo determination of pH261
10.1 Introduction262
10.1.1 Significance of pH measurement in vivo262
10.1.2 Techniques of measurement of pH in vivo263
10.1.3 Advantages of microelectrodes for the determination of pH264
10.2 Characterization of pH microelectrodes264
10.2.1 pH and pH measurements264
10.2.2 Calibration curve and linear response slope of pH microelectrodes266
10.2.3 Sensitivity267
10.2.4 Response time267
10.2.5 Reproducibility/accuracy268
10.2.6 Selectivity269
10.2.7 Stability and reliability269
10.2.8 Biocompatibility270
10.3 Fabrication of microelectrodes for pH determination270
10.3.1 Glass-based pH microelectrodes270
10.3.2 Polymer membrane-based pH microelectrodes272
10.3.3 Silicon-based pH microelectrodes273
10.3.4 Metal/metal oxide-based pH microelectrodes276
10.3.5 Ag/AgCl reference microelectrodes278
10.4 Advanced microelectrode systems for pH determination281
10.4.1 All-solid-state pH microelectrodes281
10.4.2 pH microelectrode for a lab-on-a-chip282
10.4.3 Microelectrode arrays for pH mapping284
10.4.4 Microelectrodes for continuous recording of pH in vivo286
10.4.5 Implantable pH microelectrodes286
10.4.6 Wireless pH measurement systems287
10.5 In-vivo applications of pH microelectrodes287
10.5.1 pH in the body287
10.5.2 Measurement of pH in blood288
10.5.3 Measurement of pH in the brain289
10.5.4 Measurement of pH in the heart290
10.5.5 Measurement of pH in the esophagus292
10.5.6 Measurement of pH under skin294
10.5.7 Measurement of pH in the eye294
10.6 Conclusions and outlook296
10.7 Acknowledgments297
10.8 References297
Chapter 11 Biochips – fundamentals and applications307
11.1 Introduction308
11.2 DNA arrays310
11.2.1 Types of DNA arrays311
11.2.2 Fabrication of DNA arrays312
11.2.3 Sequencing by hybridization318
11.2.4 Labeling319
11.2.5 Detection and data analysis324
11.2.6 Applications333
11.3 Protein chips335
11.3.1 Protein array and proteome335
11.3.2 Fabrication of protein chips336
11.3.3 Protein chip applications344
11.4 Electronic and electrochemical microarray biochips347
11.4.1 Theoretical consideration347
11.4.2 Fabrication technologies349
11.4.3 Electrochemical detection356
11.5 Lab-on-chips360
11.5.1 Theory of microfluidics362
11.5.2 Components in lab-on-chip systems364
11.5.3 Fabrication of BioMEMS369
11.5.4 Applications372
11.6 References375
Chapter 12 Powering fuel cells through biocatalysis385
12.1 Introduction385
12.2 Biocatalytic fuel cell design387
12.3 Electron transfer reactions388
12.4 Biocatalytic cathodes389
12.4.1 Enzymes and substrates389
12.4.2 Peroxidases390
12.4.3 Oxygenases391
12.5 Biocatalytic anodes396
12.5.1 Enzymes and substrates396
12.5.2 Glucose oxidase396
12.5.3 Dehydrogenases400
12.6 Biocatalytic fuel cells402
12.6.1 Physiological conditions402
12.6.2 Assembled glucose–oxygen biocatalytic fuel cells403
12.7 Conclusions407
12.8 References407
Chapter 13 Chemical and biological sensors based on electroactive inorganic polycrystals411
13.1 Introduction411
13.2 Properties of transition metal hexacyanoferrates412
13.2.1 Structure of transition metal hexacyanoferrates412
13.2.2 Electrochemistry of transition metal hexacyanoferrates413
13.3 Amperometric sensors for redox-inactive cations and electroactive compounds416
13.3.1 Sensors for redox-inactive cations416
13.3.2 Amperometric sensors for electroactive compounds417
13.4 Advanced sensor for hydrogen peroxide418
13.4.1 H[sub(2)]O[sub(2)] as important analyte for medicine, biology, environmental control, and ind418
13.4.2 Advanced electrocatalyst for hydrogen peroxide reduction419
13.4.3 An advanced sensor for hydrogen peroxide based on Prussian blue421
13.4.4 Non-conductive polymers on the surface of Prussian blue modified electrodes421
13.4.5 Nano-electrode arrays: towards the sensor with the record analytical performances422
13.5 Biosensors based on transition metal hexacyanoferrates425
13.5.1 Transducing principles for oxidase-based biosensors425
13.5.2 Biosensors based on transition metal hexacyanoferrates426
13.5.3 Immobilization of the enzymes using non-conventional media427
13.5.4 Towards the biosensors with the best analytical performance characteristics429
13.6 Conclusions430
13.7 Acknowledgments431
13.8 References431
Chapter 14 Nanoparticles-based biosensors and bioassays441
14.1 Introduction441
14.2 Why nanoparticles?442
14.3 Nanoparticle-based optical biosensors and bioassay443
14.4 Nanoparticle-based electrochemical biosensors and bioassay446
14.4.1 Nanoparticle-based electrochemical DNA biosensors and bioassays446
14.4.2 Nanoparticle-based electrochemical immunosensors and immunoassays449
14.5 Conclusion and outlook454
14.6 Acknowledgments455
14.7 References455
Chapter 15 Electrochemical sensors based on carbon nanotubes459
15.1 Introduction460
15.2 The structure and properties of CNTs460
15.2.1 The structure of CNTs460
15.2.2 Properties of CNTs462
15.2.3 Preparation of CNTs463
15.2.4 Purification of carbon nanotubes464
15.2.5 Advantages of electrochemical sensors based on CNTs465
15.3 Fabrication and application of electrochemical sensors based on carbon nanotubes465
15.3.1 Preparation of carbon nanotube electrodes and their electrochemical characteristics466
15.3.2 Improving the electroanalytical sensitivity and selectivity for small biological and pharmic476
15.3.3 Direct electron transfer of proteins and enzymes on carbon nanotube electrodes478
15.3.4 Electrochemical biosensors based on carbon nanotubes479
15.4 Spectroscopic characterization of carbon nanotube sensors481
15.4.1 Raman spectroscopy of carbon nanotubes481
15.4.2 FTIR of CNT-based sensors489
15.5 Conclusions493
15.6 References494
Chapter 16 Biosensors based on immobilization of biomolecules in sol-gel matrices503
16.1 Introduction504
16.2 Sol-gel504
16.2.1 Sol-gel chemistry and matrix characteristics504
16.2.2 Progress in sol-gel process506
16.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages507
16.2.4 Porosity and dynamics of proteins in sol-gel508
16.2.5 Interactions and stability of biomolecules in sol-gel509
16.2.6 Improvement of biocompatibility and conductivity of sol-gels510
16.3 Applications of sol-gel entrapped bioactive molecules510
16.3.1 Enzyme-based biosensors510
16.3.2 Photoactive proteins-based biosensors518
16.3.3 Immunosensors518
16.3.4 Immunoaffinity columns521
16.4 Whole-cell encapsulation in sol-gels and their applications522
16.4.1 Microbial cells522
16.4.2 Plant and animal cells522
16.5 Conclusions522
16.6 Acknowledgments523
16.7 References523
Chapter 17 Biosensors based on direct electron transfer of protein531
17.1 Introduction532
17.1.1 Introduction of biosensors on direct electron transfer of protein532
17.1.2 Advantage of biosensors on direct electron transfer of protein532
17.2 Direct electron transfer of protein532
17.2.1 Methods of protein immobilization532
17.2.2 Direct electron transfer of proteins537
17.2.3 Direct electron transfer of enzymes543
17.3 Application of biosensors based on direct electron transfer of protein549
17.3.1 Biosensors based on direct electron transfer of proteins549
17.3.2 Biosensors based on direct electron transfer of enzymes563
17.4 Conclusions569
17.5 Acknowledgments569
17.6 References569
Index583
A583
B583
C584
D585
E585
F586
G587
H587
I587
K588
L588
M588
N589
O590
P590
Q591
R591
S591
T592
U593
V593
W593
X593
Y593
Color platesCP2

Book details

Vendor Elsevier S & T
SKU 9780123737380
ISBN-13 9780080554891
Author Zhang, Xueji; Ju, Huangxian; Wang, Joseph
Category Science
Subject Biotechnology

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This book broadly reviews the modem techniques and significant applications of chemical sensors and biosensors. Chapters are written by experts in the field – including Professor Joseph Wang, the most cited scientist in the world and renowned expert on sensor science who is also co-editor. Each chapter provides technical details beyond the level found in typical journal articles, and explores the application of chemical sensors and biosensors to a significant problem in biomedical science, also providing a prospectus for the future.

This book compiles the expert knowledge of many specialists in the construction and use of chemical sensors and biosensors including nitric oxide sensors, glucose sensors, DNA sensors, hydrogen sulfide sensors, oxygen sensors, superoxide sensors, immuno sensors, lab on chip, implatable microsensors, et al. Emphasis is laid on practical problems, ranging from chemical application to biomedical monitoring and from in vitro to in vivo, from single cell to animal to human measurement. This provides the unique opportunity of exchanging and combining the expertise of otherwise apparently unrelated disciplines of chemistry, biological engineering, and electronic engineering, medical, physiological.

Provides user-oriented guidelines for the proper choice and application of new chemical sensors and biosensors

Details new methodological advancements related to and correlated with the measurement of interested species in biomedical samples

Contains many case studies to illustrate the range of application and importance of the chemical sensors and biosensors

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