Evaluation of the Effects and Consequences of Major Accidents in Industrial Plants
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Table of contents
- Cover
- Table of ContentsIX
- PrefaceVII
- Chapter 1. Introduction1
- 1. Risk1
- 2. Risk analysis2
- 3. Major accidents5
- 3.1 Types5
- 3.2 Damage9
- 4. Domino effect12
- 4.1 Classification of domino effects12
- 4.2 An example case12
- 5. Mathematical modelling of accidents14
- Nomenclature16
- References16
- Chapter 2. Source term19
- 1. Introduction19
- 2. Liquid release21
- 2.1 Flow of liquid through a hole in a tank21
- 2.2 Flow of liquid through a pipe24
- 2.2.1 Liquid flow rate24
- 2.2.2 Friction factor27
- 3. Gas/vapour release30
- 3.1 Flow of gas/vapour through a hole30
- 3.1.1 Critical velocity30
- 3.1.2 Mass flow rate33
- 3.1.3 Discharge coefficient33
- 3.2 Flow of gas/vapour through a pipe35
- 3.3 Time-dependent gas release40
- 4. Two-phase flow42
- 4.1 Flashing liquids42
- 4.2 Two-phase discharge43
- 5. Safety relief valves44
- 5.1 Discharge from a safety relief valve45
- 6. Relief discharges47
- 6.1 Relief flow rate for vessels subject to external fire48
- 6.2 Relief flow rate for vessels undergoing a runaway reaction49
- 7. Evaporation of a liquid from a pool53
- 7.1 Evaporation of liquids53
- 7.2 Pool size53
- 7.2.1 Pool on ground53
- 7.2.2 Pool on water53
- 7.3 Evaporation of boiling liquids53
- 7.4 Evaporation of non-boiling liquids54
- 8. General outflow guidelines for quantitative risk analysis55
- 8.1 Loss-of-containment events in pressurized tanks and vessels56
- 8.2 Loss-of-containment events in atmospheric tanks56
- 8.3 Loss-of-containment events in pipes56
- 8.4 Loss-of-containment events in pumps56
- 8.5 Loss-of-containment events in relief devices56
- 8.6 Loss-of-containment events for storage in warehouses57
- 8.7 Loss-of-containment events in transport units in an establishment57
- 8.8 Pool evaporation57
- 8.9 Outflow and atmospheric dispersion58
- Nomenclature58
- References59
- Chapter 3. Fire accidents61
- 1. Introduction61
- 2. Combustion61
- 2.1 Combustion reaction and combustion heat62
- 2.2 Premixed flames and diffusion flames63
- 3. Types of fire63
- 3.1 Pool fires64
- 3.2 Jet fires65
- 3.3 Flash fires65
- 3.4 Fireballs66
- 4. Flammability66
- 4.1 Flammability limits66
- 4.1.1 Estimation of flammability limits67
- 4.1.2 Flammability limits of gas mixtures69
- 4.1.3 Flammability limits as a function of pressure70
- 4.1.4 Flammability limits as a function of temperature70
- 4.1.5 Inerting and flammability diagrams71
- 4.2 Flash point temperature72
- 4.3 Autoignition temperature73
- 5. Estimation of thermal radiation from fires74
- 5.1 Point source model74
- 5.2 Solid flame model77
- 5.2.1 View factor78
- 5.2.2 Emissive power80
- 6. Flame size83
- 6.1 Pool fire size84
- 6.1.1 Pool diameter84
- 6.1.2 Burning rate86
- 6.1.3 Height and length of the flames87
- 6.1.4 Influence of wind87
- 6.2 Size of a jet fire90
- 6.2.1 Jet flow90
- 6.2.2 Shape and size of the jet fire92
- 6.2.3 Influence of wind94
- 6.3 Flash fire99
- 7. Boilover100
- 7.1 Tendency of hydrocarbons to boilover102
- 7.2 Boilover effects103
- 8. Fireball104
- 8.1 Fireball geometry104
- 8.1.1 Ground diameter104
- 8.1.2 Fireball duration and diameter104
- 8.1.3 Height reached by the centre of the fireball105
- 8.2 Thermal features106
- 8.2.1 Radiant heat fraction106
- 8.2.2 Emissive power107
- 8.2.3 View factor108
- 8.3 Constant or variable D, H and E108
- 9. Example case109
- Nomenclature113
- References115
- Chapter 4. Vapour cloud explosions119
- 1. Introduction119
- 2. Vapour clouds120
- 3. Blast and blast wave121
- 3.1 Blast wave121
- 3.2 Detonations122
- 3.3 Deflagrations123
- 3.4 Blast scaling123
- 3.5 Free-air and ground explosions124
- 4. Estimation of blast: TNT equivalency method125
- 5. Estimation of blast: multi-energy method129
- 6. Estimation of blast: Baker-Strehlow-Tang method133
- 7. Comparison of the three methods136
- 8. A statistical approach to the estimation of the probable number of fatalities in accidental explo138
- 9. Example case140
- Nomenclature144
- References144
- Chapter 5. BLEVEs and vessel explosions147
- 1. Introduction147
- 2. Mechanism of BLEVE149
- 2.1 Liquid superheating151
- 2.2 Superheat limit temperature153
- 2.3 Superheat limit temperature from energy balance156
- 2.4 When is an explosion a BLEVE?159
- 3. Vessel failure163
- 3.1 Mechanism163
- 3.2 Pressure required for vessel failure164
- 4. Estimation of explosion effects165
- 4.1 Thermal radiation165
- 4.2 Mechanical energy released by the explosions165
- 4.2.1 Ideal gas behaviour and isentropic expansion166
- 4.2.2 Real gas behaviour and irreversible expansion168
- 4.3 Pressure wave169
- 4.4 Using liquid superheating energy for a quick estimation of ΔP173
- 4.5 Estimation of ΔP from characteristic curves176
- 4.6 Missiles178
- 4.6.1 Range181
- 4.6.2 Velocity182
- 5. Preventive measures183
- 6. Example cases186
- Nomenclature190
- References192
- Chapter 6. Atmospheric dispersion of toxic or flammable clouds195
- 1. Introduction195
- 2. Atmospheric variables195
- 2.1 Wind196
- 2.2 Lapse rates199
- 2.3 Atmospheric stability200
- 2.4 Relative humidity204
- 2.5 Units of measurement204
- 3. Dispersion models205
- 3.1 Continuous and instantaneous releases205
- 3.2 Effective height of emission207
- 4. Dispersion models for neutral gases (Gaussian models)208
- 4.1 Continuous emission209
- 4.2 Instantaneous emission215
- 4.3 Short-term releases218
- 5. Dispersion models for heavier-than-air gases219
- 5.1 Britter and McQuaid model221
- 5.1.1 Continuous release221
- 5.1.2 Instantaneous release223
- 5.1.3 Finite duration release225
- 6. Calculating concentration contour coordinates227
- 6.1 The Ooms integral plume model227
- 6.2 Determining concentration contour coordinates227
- 7. Dispersion of dust230
- 8. Atmospheric dispersion of infectious agents231
- 8.1 Emission source231
- 8.2 Dispersion of airborne pathogenic agents232
- 8.3 Epidemics: dispersion of airborne viruses232
- 9. Escaping236
- 10. Sheltering236
- 10.1 Concentration indoors236
- 10.1.1 Continuous release236
- 10.1.2 Temporary release237
- 10.1.3 Instantaneous release239
- 10.1.3 A simplified approach241
- 11. Example case242
- Nomenclature244
- Annex 6-1246
- References247
- Chapter 7. Vulnerability249
- 1. Introduction249
- 2. Population response to an accident249
- 3. Probit analysis250
- 4. Vulnerability to thermal radiation254
- 4.1 Damage to people254
- 4.1.1 Probit equations257
- 4.1.2 Clothing258
- 4.1.3 Escape258
- 4.1.4 Effect of hot air261
- 4.2 Material damages261
- 5. Vulnerability to explosions263
- 5.1 Damage to human beings263
- 5.1.1 Direct consequences263
- 5.1.2 Indirect consequences265
- 5.1.3 Collapse of buildings268
- 5.2 Consequences of an explosion for buildings and structures269
- 6. Vulnerability to toxic substances271
- 6.1 Dose and probit equations273
- 6.2 Substances released from a fire275
- 7. Inert gases277
- 8. Influence of sheltering279
- 8.1 Thermal radiation279
- 8.2 Blast280
- 8.3 Toxic exposure280
- 9. Relationship between the number of people killed and the number of people injured in major accide280
- 10. Zoning according to vulnerability281
- 11. Example case283
- Nomenclature286
- Annex 7-1287
- References288
- Chapter 8. Quantitative risk analysis291
- 1. Introduction291
- 2. Quantitative risk analysis steps292
- 3. Individual and societal risks294
- 3.1 Individual and societal risks definition294
- 4. Risk mapping296
- 4.1 Individual risk contours296
- 4.2 Procedure296
- 4.3 Societal risk298
- 5. Introductory examples of risk calculation299
- 6. Frequencies and probabilities306
- 6.1 Frequencies of most common loss-of-containment events306
- 6.2 Failure of repression systems306
- 6.3 Human error306
- 6.4 Probabilities for ignition and explosion of flammable spills306
- 6.5 Meteorological data309
- 7. Example case309
- 7.1 Estimation of the frequencies of initiating events311
- 7.2 Event trees of the diverse initiating events312
- 7.3 Effects of the different accident scenarios319
- 7.4 Calculation of the individual risk327
- Nomenclature329
- References331
- Annex 1 Constants in the Antoine equation333
- Annex 2 Flammability limits, flash temperature and heat of combustion (higher value) for different s335
- Annex 3 Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs)337
- Annex 4 Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health concentrations (IDLH)345
- Annex 5 Determining the damage to humans from explosions using characteristic curves347
- Damage to humans from explosions as a function of TNT equivalence347
- Damage to humans from vapour cloud explosions as a function of the Multi-energy method349
- References351
- Index353
The book analyzes the different major accidents which can occur in process plants and during the transportation of hazardous materials. The main features of fires, explosions and toxic releases are discussed, and a set of mathematical models allowing the prediction of their effects and consequences are explained. With a practical approach, the models are applied to simple illustrative examples, as well as to more complex real cases. The use of these calculations in the frame of Quantitative Risk Analysis is also treated.
Evaluation of the effects of major accidents in industrial installations covers the following topics: general introduction, source term, fire accidents, vapour cloud explosions, BLEVEs and vessel explosions, atmospheric dispersion of toxic or flammable clouds, vulnerability, and quantitative risk analysis.
This book is a useful tool for engineering professionals, as well as an interesting reference for teaching at graduate and post-graduate levels.
Both the essential aspects and the calculations related to the diverse accidents are discussed
The prediction of effects and consequences is performed with a practical approach
Recent contributions from literature have been included
Subjects of increasing importance have been included: an extense analysis of BLEVEs, for example, or the atmospheric dispersion of pathogenic agents.
Evaluation of the effects of major accidents in industrial installations covers the following topics: general introduction, source term, fire accidents, vapour cloud explosions, BLEVEs and vessel explosions, atmospheric dispersion of toxic or flammable clouds, vulnerability, and quantitative risk analysis.
This book is a useful tool for engineering professionals, as well as an interesting reference for teaching at graduate and post-graduate levels.
Both the essential aspects and the calculations related to the diverse accidents are discussed
The prediction of effects and consequences is performed with a practical approach
Recent contributions from literature have been included
Subjects of increasing importance have been included: an extense analysis of BLEVEs, for example, or the atmospheric dispersion of pathogenic agents.