Handbook of Nonwoven Filter Media
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Table of contents
- Front CoverCover
- Handbook of Nonwoven Filter Mediaiii
- Copyright Pageiv
- Contentsv
- Prefacexiii
- Chapter 1 Introduction to Nonwoven Filter Media1
- 1.1 Introduction1
- 1.2 Filtration and Separation Defined1
- 1.3 Nonwovens Defined2
- 1.4 Definition of Filter Media6
- 1.4.1 Adsorbent media6
- 1.4.2 Absorbent media7
- 1.4.3 Coalescing media7
- 1.4.4 Electro-filtration7
- 1.4.5 Antimicrobial media8
- 1.4.6 Extraction8
- 1.4.7 Filter support8
- 1.4.8 Composite structures8
- 1.5 Nonwoven Filter Media Defined9
- 1.6 What Is Not a Nonwoven Filter Medium9
- 1.7 Classification of Nonwovens by Process10
- 1.7.1 Dry formed processes10
- 1.7.1.1 Air laid10
- 1.7.1.2 Dry laid webs and felts13
- 1.7.1.3 Spunbonded18
- 1.7.1.4 Melt-blown19
- 1.7.1.5 Electrospun process20
- 1.7.2 Wet laid22
- 1.7.2.1 Forming of wet lay webs22
- 1.7.2.2 Bonding of wet laid nonwovens23
- 1.7.2.3 Converting processes for wet lay webs24
- 1.7.3 Composite structures24
- 1.8 The Challenges of Nonwoven Filter Media26
- Chapter 2 Filtration Mechanisms and Theory29
- 2.1 Filtration Mechanisms29
- 2.1.1 Types of filtration mechanisms29
- 2.1.2 Mechanisms of particle capture30
- 2.1.3 Reentrainment and media migration33
- 2.1.4 Membrane processes33
- 2.1.4.1 Microfiltration33
- 2.1.4.2 Ultrafiltration33
- 2.1.4.3 Nanofiltration33
- 2.1.4.4 Reverse osmosis34
- 2.1.4.5 Membrane process summary34
- 2.2 Filtration Theory34
- 2.2.1 Flow dynamics34
- 2.2.2 The equations of motion and continuity36
- 2.2.2.1 The equation of continuity36
- 2.2.2.2 The equation of motion36
- 2.2.3 Flow through porous media: channel theory37
- 2.2.3.1 Darcy's law37
- 2.2.3.2 The Hagen–Poiseuille equation39
- 2.2.3.3 The Kozeny–Carman equation39
- 2.2.4 Flow through porous media: cell model theory42
- 2.2.4.1 Davies equation42
- 2.2.4.2 Langmuir's theory44
- 2.2.4.3 Happel and Kuwabara models47
- 2.2.4.4 Advances in cell model theory51
- 2.2.4.5 Drag model theory53
- 2.2.4.6 Computational fluid dynamics56
- 2.3 Particle Filtration56
- 2.3.1 Single fiber theory57
- 2.3.2 Particle capture based on the Kuwabara flow model59
- 2.3.2.1 Justification for Kuwabara flow model59
- 2.3.2.2 Mechanisms of particle capture60
- 2.3.2.3 Dimensionless numbers60
- 2.3.2.4 Results of various investigators62
- 2.3.3 Structure of fibrous filters65
- Chapter 3 Properties of Nonwoven Filter Media71
- 3.1 Characteristics and Properties of Air Laid Webs71
- 3.2 Characteristics and Properties of Dry Laid Webs71
- 3.2.1 Needle punched felts71
- 3.2.2 Hydroentangled webs73
- 3.2.3 High loft filter media73
- 3.3 Characteristics and Properties of Spunbonded Webs74
- 3.4 Characteristics and Properties of Melt-Blown Webs79
- 3.5 Characteristics and Properties of Wet Laid Webs81
- 3.5.1 Base sheet81
- 3.5.2 Resin treated filter media82
- 3.5.3 Glass microfiber filter media85
- 3.6 Electret Filter Media87
- 3.6.1 Electrostatically spun fibers87
- 3.6.2 Fibrillated electret film88
- 3.6.3 Corona treated melt-blown fibers90
- 3.6.4 Carded blends of triboelectric fibers92
- 3.7 Coalescing Media95
- 3.8 Composite Structures96
- 3.9 Adsorptive Media97
- 3.10 Antimicrobial Media102
- Chapter 4 Raw Materials for Nonwoven Filter Media103
- 4.1 Introduction103
- 4.2 Polymers103
- 4.3 Fibers112
- 4.3.1 Classification112
- 4.3.2 Physical characteristics112
- 4.3.3 Physical chemical characteristics113
- 4.3.4 Fiber properties for filtration media113
- 4.3.4.1 Diameter115
- 4.3.4.2 Length116
- 4.3.4.3 Aspect ratio118
- 4.3.4.4 Density118
- 4.3.4.5 Linear density119
- 4.3.4.6 Cross-section shape119
- 4.3.4.7 Moisture content and moisture absorption120
- 4.3.4.8 Thermal properties121
- 4.3.4.9 Strength properties of fibers122
- 4.3.5 Fiber types122
- 4.3.5.1 Natural fibers122
- 4.3.5.2 Synthetic fibers: organic145
- 4.3.5.3 Inorganic fibers159
- 4.3.5.4 Specialty fibers168
- 4.4 Resins and Binders175
- 4.4.1 Formaldehyde resins175
- 4.4.1.1 Phenolic resins175
- 4.4.1.2 Melamine formaldehyde178
- 4.4.1.3 Urea formaldehyde178
- 4.4.2 Latex resins178
- 4.4.2.1 Introduction to latex resins178
- 4.4.2.2 Polymer systems for latex resins183
- 4.4.2.3 Solution polymers185
- 4.4.2.4 Cross-linking agents for water-based resins188
- 4.5 Additives and Finishes188
- 4.5.1 Adsorbent materials188
- 4.5.2 Flame retardants190
- 4.5.3 Water repellents193
- 4.5.4 Antimicrobial agents194
- Chapter 5 Processes for Nonwoven Filter Media195
- 5.1 Dry Formed195
- 5.1.1 Air laid195
- 5.1.2 Dry laid webs and felts196
- 5.1.2.1 Forming of dry laid webs196
- 5.1.2.2 Bale opening, feeding, and blending200
- 5.1.2.3 Bonding of dry laid webs202
- 5.1.3 Spunbonded webs209
- 5.1.4 Melt-blown webs215
- 5.1.5 Electrospun webs219
- 5.2 Wet Lay Process220
- 5.2.1 Forming of wet lay webs221
- 5.2.2 Drying of wet lay webs226
- 5.2.3 Bonding of wet laid nonwovens227
- 5.2.3.1 Wet end bonding227
- 5.2.3.2 Resin application to the web228
- 5.2.4 Converting processes for wet lay webs229
- 5.2.4.1 Corrugating229
- 5.2.4.2 Creping230
- 5.2.4.3 Rewinding and slitting231
- 5.2.4.4 Stamping and dye cutting233
- 5.2.4.5 Bag making233
- 5.2.4.6 Pleating233
- 5.3 Composite Structures233
- 5.3.1 SMS process234
- 5.3.2 Multi-ply forming234
- 5.3.3 Laminating234
- 5.3.4 Entanglement234
- 5.3.5 Collectors234
- 5.4 The Pleating Process235
- 5.4.1 Gear pleaters235
- 5.4.2 Blade pleaters235
- 5.4.3 Knife pleaters238
- 5.4.4 Rotary pleaters239
- Chapter 6 Testing of Nonwoven Filter Media245
- 6.1 Grammage or Basis Weight245
- 6.2 Volatiles and Moisture Content246
- 6.3 Formaldehyde Content246
- 6.4 Caliper or Thickness247
- 6.5 Air Permeability248
- 6.6 Density and Bulk248
- 6.7 Solidity and Porosity250
- 6.8 Pore Size and Pore Structure254
- 6.8.1 Bubble point254
- 6.8.2 Mean flow pore size256
- 6.9 Other Techniques for Measuring Pore Size and Structure258
- 6.9.1 Image analysis258
- 6.9.2 Microscopy259
- 6.9.3 X-ray microtomography259
- 6.9.4 Liquid extrusion porosimetry261
- 6.9.5 Liquid intrusion porosimetry263
- 6.9.6 Gas/vapor adsorption (BET)264
- 6.9.7 Summation265
- 6.10 Strength Properties267
- 6.10.1 Tensile properties267
- 6.10.1.1 Dry tensile properties267
- 6.10.1.2 Wet tensile strength271
- 6.10.2 Other strength related properties272
- 6.10.2.1 Grab tensile strength ASTM D4632272
- 6.10.2.2 Burst strength272
- 6.10.2.3 Tear strength273
- 6.10.2.4 Stiffness275
- 6.10.2.5 Internal bond strength277
- 6.10.2.6 Fold endurance278
- 6.11 Water Repellency and Water/Moisture Resistance278
- 6.11.1 Water repellency278
- 6.11.2 Water resistance280
- 6.11.3 Moisture resistance281
- 6.12 Flammability282
- 6.13 Filter Media Filtration Testing283
- 6.13.1 Efficiency284
- 6.13.1.1 Filtration efficiency284
- 6.13.1.2 Single pass efficiency285
- 6.13.1.3 Cumulative efficiency285
- 6.13.1.4 Micron rating285
- 6.13.1.5 Multi-pass efficiency286
- 6.13.1.6 Beta rating286
- 6.13.1.7 Fractional efficiency286
- 6.13.1.8 MERV rating286
- 6.13.1.9 Arrestance287
- 6.13.1.10 ASHRAE dust-spot efficiency287
- 6.13.1.11 CEN ratings287
- 6.13.1.12 HEPA and ULPA ratings287
- 6.13.1.13 MPPS288
- 6.13.1.14 Aerosol efficiency penetrometers288
- 6.13.1.15 Filtration efficiency, bacterial filtration efficiency, and viral filtration efficiency288
- 6.13.2 Pressure drop290
- 6.13.3 Filter life testing290
- Chapter 7 Liquid Filter Applications291
- 7.1 Introduction to Liquid Filter Applications291
- 7.2 Nonwoven Filter Media for Liquid Filter Applications292
- 7.2.1 Needlefelt products292
- 7.2.2 Melt-blown media293
- 7.2.3 Spunbond media294
- 7.2.4 Electrospun media294
- 7.2.5 Filter papers294
- 7.2.5.1 Industrial filter papers294
- 7.2.5.2 Laboratory papers295
- 7.2.5.3 Filter sheets297
- 7.2.6 Resin treated filter paper298
- 7.2.7 Composite structures298
- 7.3 Filters that Use Nonwoven Filter Media299
- 7.3.1 Roll filters299
- 7.3.1.1 Description of roll filters299
- 7.3.1.2 Media for roll filters301
- 7.3.2 Nonwovens for replaceable filter elements303
- 7.3.2.1 Explanation of replaceable filter elements303
- 7.3.2.2 Cartridge filters304
- 7.3.2.3 Wound filter elements311
- 7.3.2.4 Candle filters311
- 7.3.2.5 Bag filters311
- 7.4 Testing of Liquid Filters314
- 7.4.1 Efficiency assessment314
- 7.4.2 Multi-pass test stand316
- 7.4.3 Test dust complication318
- 7.4.4 Test comparison319
- 7.4.5 Cleanliness levels319
- Chapter 8 Air Filter Applications325
- 8.1 Industrial Air Filtration325
- 8.1.1 Dust collection systems325
- 8.1.2 Fume and vapor emissions329
- 8.2 Heat Ventilation and Air Conditioning Systems334
- 8.2.1 Filters for air cleaning systems334
- 8.2.1.1 Panel filters334
- 8.2.1.2 Pocket filters336
- 8.2.2 HVAC standards336
- 8.2.2.1 CEN EN 779:2002 E and Eurovent 4/5336
- 8.2.2.2 ASHRAE 52.2-1999339
- 8.2.2.3 ASHRAE 52.1-1992342
- 8.2.2.4 Comparison and application guidelines for ASHRAE 52.1 and ASHRAE 52.2344
- 8.2.2.5 Standard for portable air cleaners344
- 8.2.2.6 Fire and flame resistant standards347
- 8.3 High Efficiency Air Filtration347
- 8.3.1 A brief history of high efficiency air filtration347
- 8.3.2 HEPA filters349
- 8.3.2.1 Traditional panel filters349
- 8.3.2.2 Separator-less HEPA filters350
- 8.3.2.3 Mini-pleat filters350
- 8.3.2.4 Round filters351
- 8.3.2.5 HEPA media description and standards351
- 8.3.3 ULPA filters354
- 8.3.4 Cleanrooms354
- 8.3.5 Paint spray booth filters356
- 8.4 Respirators, Gas Masks, and Facemasks357
- 8.4.1 Respirators and gas masks – 42 CFR (US), Chapter 1, Part 84357
- 8.4.1.1 Self-contained breathing apparatus358
- 8.4.1.2 Gas masks358
- 8.4.1.3 Supplied-air respirators359
- 8.4.1.4 Non-powered air-purifying particulate arrestors360
- 8.4.1.5 Powered air-purifying respirators361
- 8.4.1.6 Chemical cartridge respirators362
- 8.4.1.7 Filter media for respirators362
- 8.4.2 Surgical and healthcare face masks363
- 8.5 Vacuum Cleaners364
- 8.6 Air Purifiers365
- 8.7 Air Demisters366
- 8.7.1 Air–moisture demisters366
- 8.7.2 Air–oil demisters367
- Chapter 9 Engine Filtration369
- 9.1 Introduction369
- 9.2 Lube Oil Filtration372
- 9.3 Air Intake Filtration377
- 9.4 Cabin Air Filtration381
- 9.5 Fuel Filtration384
- 9.5.1 Engine fuel filtration384
- 9.5.2 Fuel transportation systems384
- 9.6 Gas Turbine Air Filters386
- 9.6.1 Turbines description386
- 9.6.2 Air inlet filtration for gas turbines387
- 9.6.3 Filter media for gas turbine filtration389
- Chapter 10 Standards for Nonwoven Filter Media393
- 10.1 Standards and Trade Organizations That Have Standards, Registrations, and/or Certifications Rel393
- 10.2 Standards Organizations394
- 10.3 Standards Related to Nonwoven Filter Media397
- 10.4 INDA–EDANA Harmonized Test Methods409
- Nomenclature415
- Glossary423
- A423
- B424
- C425
- D427
- E428
- F429
- G431
- H432
- I432
- L433
- M433
- N435
- P435
- Q437
- R437
- S438
- T441
- U442
- V442
- W443
- X443
- Z443
- References445
- Index457
- A457
- B458
- C459
- D461
- E461
- F462
- G463
- H464
- I464
- J465
- K465
- L466
- M466
- N467
- O468
- P468
- Q469
- R469
- S470
- T471
- U472
- V472
- W473
- X473
- Y473
- Z473
The increasing importance of nonwoven filter media is due in part to their versatility: they are used in the pre-filtration of liquids, protection of membrane filters, gaseous filtration, the automotive industry, air purification, wet filtration and many household uses. Despite this, no comprehensive account of these media has existed until now.
Irwin (Marshall) Hutten is well-known throughout the nonwoven industry and brings enormous experience and knowledge to this Handbook.
All aspects of the properties, formation, materials, types of filters, applications, test-methods and standards are to be found within this volume.
* Provides practical advice on applications of nonwoven filter media
* Discusses in detail the raw materials and manufacturing process
* Offers definitions and classifications for nonwoven filter media
Irwin (Marshall) Hutten is well-known throughout the nonwoven industry and brings enormous experience and knowledge to this Handbook.
All aspects of the properties, formation, materials, types of filters, applications, test-methods and standards are to be found within this volume.
* Provides practical advice on applications of nonwoven filter media
* Discusses in detail the raw materials and manufacturing process
* Offers definitions and classifications for nonwoven filter media