Elsevier S & T

Handbook of Vacuum Science and Technology

Hoffman, Dorothy; Singh, Bawa; Thomas, III, John H.

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Table of contents
  • Contentsix
  • Prefacexvii
  • List of Contributorsxxi
  • Part 1: Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology and Surface Physics1
  • Chapter 1.1. Vacuum Nomenclature and Definitions3
  • 1.1.1 Basic Definition3
  • 1.1.2 Pressure Regions of Vacuum3
  • Chapter 1.2. Gas Properties8
  • 1.2.1 Description of Vacuum as a Low-Pressure Gas8
  • 1.2.2 Characteristics of a Gas„Basic Definitions8
  • 1.2.3 Gas Laws9
  • Chapter 1.3. Molecular Processes and Kinetic Theory11
  • 1.3.1 General Description11
  • 1.3.2 Molecular Motion12
  • 1.3.3 Kinetic Theory Derivation of the Gas Laws14
  • 1.3.4 Pressure15
  • 1.3.5 Molecular Mean Free Path17
  • 1.3.6 Number of Impacts with the Chamber Wall19
  • 1.3.7 Time to Form a Monolayer20
  • 1.3.8 Thermal Transpiration20
  • 1.3.9 Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity21
  • 1.3.10 Coefficient of Diffusion21
  • Chapter 1.4. Throughput, Pumping Speed, Evacuation Rate, Outgassing Rate, and Leak Rate22
  • Chapter 1.5. Gas Flow25
  • 1.5.1 Nature of Gas Flow25
  • 1.5.2 Turbulent Flow27
  • 1.5.3 Viscous, Streamline, or Laminar Flow28
  • 1.5.4 Molecular Flow29
  • 1.5.5 Flow Relationships29
  • Chapter 1.6. Conductance32
  • 1.6.1 Conductance32
  • 1.6.2 Conductances in Parallel33
  • 1.6.3 Conductances in Series33
  • Chapter 1.7. Flow Calculations35
  • 1.7.1 Equations for Viscous Flow35
  • 1.7.2 Equations for Molecular Flow37
  • 1.7.3 Knudsen's Formulation37
  • 1.7.4 Clausing Factors38
  • Chapter 1.8. Surface Physics and Its Relation to Vacuum Science40
  • 1.8.1 Physical Adsorption or "Adsorption"40
  • 1.8.2 Chemisorption42
  • 1.8.3 Sticking Coefficient43
  • 1.8.4 Surface Area44
  • 1.8.5 Surface Adsorption Isotherms45
  • 1.8.6 Capillary Action47
  • 1.8.7 Condensation48
  • 1.8.8 Desorption Phenomena49
  • 1.8.9 Thermal Desorption50
  • 1.8.10 Photoactivation52
  • 1.8.11 Ultrasonic Desorption53
  • 1.8.12 Electron- and Ion-Stimulated Desorption53
  • 1.8.13 Gas Release from Surfaces54
  • References55
  • Part 2: Creation of Vacuum57
  • Chapter 2.1. Technology of Vacuum Pumps „ An Overview59
  • 2.1.1 Vacuum Pump Function Basics59
  • 2.1.2 Gas Transport: Throughput61
  • 2.1.3 Performance Parameters62
  • 2.1.4 Pumping Speed64
  • 2.1.5 Pumpdown Time65
  • 2.1.6 Ultimate Pressure69
  • 2.1.7 Forevacuum and High-Vacuum Pumping71
  • 2.1.8 Pump System Relationships73
  • 2.1.9 Crossover from Rough to High-Vacuum Pumps78
  • 2.1.10 Pumping System Design79
  • References83
  • Chapter 2.2. Diaphragm Pumps84
  • 2.2.1 Introduction: Basics and Operating Principle84
  • 2.2.2 State-of-the-Art Design and Manufacturing87
  • 2.2.3 Performance and Technical Data91
  • 2.2.4 Modular Concept for Specific Application Setups: Standalone Operation92
  • 2.2.5 Diaphragm Pumps as Backing and Auxiliary Pumps in Vacuum Systems93
  • References96
  • Chapter 2.3. Vacuum Blowers97
  • 2.3.1 Introduction97
  • 2.3.2 Equipment Description97
  • 2.3.3 Blower Operating Principle100
  • 2.3.4 Blower Pumping Efficiency101
  • 2.3.5 Blower Pumping Speed Calculations103
  • 2.3.6 Power Requirements104
  • 2.3.7 Temperature Considerations106
  • 2.3.8 Flow and Compression Ratio Control Mechanisms108
  • 2.3.9 Liquid-Sealed Blowers112
  • 2.3.10 Selected System Arrangements112
  • Chapter 2.4. Vacuum Jet Pumps (Diffusion Pumps)116
  • 2.4.1 Basic Pumping Mechanism117
  • 2.4.2 Pumping Speed122
  • 2.4.3 Throughput127
  • 2.4.4 Tolerable Forepressure128
  • 2.4.5 Ultimate Pressure132
  • 2.4.6 Backstreaming137
  • 2.4.7 Other Performance Aspects144
  • References148
  • Chapter 2.5. Cryogenic Pumps149
  • 2.5.1 Introduction149
  • 2.5.2 Cryopump Basics156
  • 2.5.3 Advanced Control Systems167
  • 2.5.4 Cryopump Process Applications173
  • 2.5.5 Cryogenic Pumps Specifically for Water Vapor177
  • 2.5.6 Comparison of Cryopumps to Other Types of Pumps179
  • 2.5.7 Future Developments181
  • References181
  • Chapter 2.6. Turbomolecular Pumps183
  • 2.6.1 Turbomolecular Pumps (TMP)183
  • 2.6.2 Molecular Drag Pumps (MDP)195
  • 2.6.3 Combination of Pumps (TMP + MDP)197
  • 2.6.4 Evaluation of Combinations of Backing Pumps and TMPs, Etc200
  • 2.6.5 The Use of TMP in Applications: Specific Effects and Demands208
  • 2.6.6 Avoiding Operational Mistakes211
  • References212
  • Chapter 2.7. Pumps for Ultra-High Vacuum Applications214
  • 2.7.1 System Design for Ultra-High Vacuum215
  • 2.7.2 The Selection of Pumps for Ultra-High Vacuum Applications216
  • 2.7.3 Sputter-Ion Pumps220
  • 2.7.4 Getter Pumps242
  • References252
  • Part 3: Vacuum Measurements255
  • Chapter 3.1. The Measurement of Low Pressures257
  • 3.1.1 Overview258
  • 3.1.2 Direct Reading Gauges260
  • 3.1.3 Indirect Reading Gauges265
  • 3.1.4 Calibration of Vacuum Gauges286
  • References288
  • Chapter 3.2. Mass Analysis and Partial Pressure Measurements290
  • 3.2.1 Overview and Applications290
  • 3.2.2 Inlet Systems300
  • 3.2.3 Ion Generation and Ion Sources303
  • 3.2.4 Ion Separation Analyzers308
  • 3.2.5 Detection of Ions323
  • References326
  • Chapter 3.3. Practical Aspects of Vacuum System Mass Spectrometers335
  • 3.3.1 Historical Insight335
  • 3.3.2 Expected Gases in a Vacuum System336
  • 3.3.3 The Ion Generation Process340
  • 3.3.4 Techniques for Analysis351
  • 3.3.5 Calibration of Vacuum System Mass Spectrometers364
  • 3.3.6 Some Applications370
  • References374
  • Chapter 3.4. Mass Flow Measurement and Control376
  • 3.4.1 General Principles of Mass Flow Measurement376
  • 3.4.2 Overview of Thermal Mass Flow Controller Technology378
  • 3.4.3 Performance Characteristics382
  • 3.4.4 Troubleshooting386
  • References387
  • Part 4: Systems Design and Components389
  • Chapter 4.1. Selection Considerations for Vacuum Valves391
  • 4.1.1 Introduction391
  • 4.1.2 Valves for Shutoff391
  • 4.1.3 Valves for Control397
  • 4.1.4 Valve Construction398
  • 4.1.5 Specialty Valves404
  • 4.1.6 Installation Considerations for Vacuum Valves407
  • References408
  • Chapter 4.2. Flange and Component Systems409
  • 4.2.1 Introduction409
  • 4.2.2 Selecting a Flange System410
  • 4.2.3 Common Flange Systems410
  • 4.2.4 Components with Flanges Attached425
  • Trademarks430
  • References432
  • Chapter 4.3. Magnetic-Fluid-Sealed Rotary Motion Feedthroughs433
  • 4.3.1 Basic Sealing Principle433
  • 4.3.2 Application Factors434
  • 4.3.3 Impact of Feedthrough on Process436
  • 4.3.4 Impact of Process on Feedthrough437
  • 4.3.5 Materials Considerations438
  • 4.3.6 Application Examples440
  • 4.3.7 Comparison to Other Types of Feedthroughs442
  • Chapter 4.4. Viewports444
  • 4.4.1 Materials444
  • 4.4.2 Mounting Systems and Precautions445
  • CH4Chapter 4.5. Construction Materials446
  • 4.5.1 Properties Defining Material Performance446
  • 4.5.2 Vacuum Chamber Materials451
  • 4.5.3 Special-Purpose Materials455
  • References462
  • Chapter 4.6. Demountable Seals for Flanges and Valves463
  • 4.6.1 Sealing Overview: Polymer and Metal Seals463
  • 4.6.2 The Elastomeric and Nonelastomeric Polymers Used in Vacuum Sealing464
  • 4.6.3 Metal Seals474
  • References482
  • Chapter 4.7. Outgassing of Materials484
  • 4.7.1 Relationships Among System Pressure, Pumping Speed, and Outgassing484
  • 4.7.2 Initial Pumpdown from Atmospheric Pressure494
  • 4.7.3 Pressure Vs. Time During Outgassing495
  • 4.7.4 The Outgassing Rate of Elastomers and Plastics497
  • 4.7.5 The Outgassing Rate of Metals and Ceramics501
  • 4.7.6 The Outgassing Rate of Preconditioned Vacuum Systems After Short Exposure to the Atmosphere504
  • 4.7.7 Methods of Decreasing the Outgassing Rate506
  • 4.7.8 Measurement of the Outgassing Rate of Materials507
  • References508
  • Chapter 4.8. Aluminum-Based Vacuum Systems509
  • 4.8.1 Outgassing509
  • 4.8.2 Demountable Seals512
  • 4.8.3 Cleaning and Surface Finishing518
  • 4.8.4 Mechanical Considerations520
  • 4.8.5 Thermal Conductivity and Emissivity536
  • 4.8.6 Corrosion538
  • 4.8.7 Welding Aluminum for Vacuum Applications541
  • References548
  • Chapter 4.9. Preparation and Cleaning of Vacuum Surfaces553
  • 4.9.1 Surface Modification554
  • 4.9.2 External Cleaning567
  • 4.9.3 Assembly, Handling, and Storage587
  • 4.9.4 In Situ Cleaning591
  • 4.9.5 Documentation599
  • 4.9.6 Conclusion601
  • Trade Names601
  • References601
  • Part 5: Vacuum Applications607
  • Chapter 5.1. High-Vacuum-Based Processes: Sputtering609
  • 5.1.1 Sputtering and Deposition611
  • 5.1.2 Sputter Deposition Technologies612
  • 5.1.3 Magnetron Applications624
  • 5.1.4 Future Directions in Sputtering626
  • References627
  • Chapter 5.2. Plasma Etching628
  • 5.2.1 Introduction628
  • 5.2.2 Review of Plasma Concepts Applicable to Etching Reactors628
  • 5.2.3 Basic Plasma Etching Requirements633
  • 5.2.4 Plasma Diagnostics641
  • 5.2.5 Basic Plasma Etch Reactors643
  • 5.2.6 Advanced Plasma Etch Reactors649
  • 5.2.7 New Trends665
  • References667
  • Chapter 5.3. Ion Beam Technology672
  • 5.3.1 Introduction672
  • 5.3.2 Ion Beam Etching678
  • 5.3.3 Ion Beam Sputter Deposition683
  • 5.3.4 lon-Beam-Assisted Deposition687
  • 5.3.5 Ion Beam Direct Deposition689
  • 5.3.6 Conclusion690
  • References691
  • Chapter 5.4. Pulsed Laser Deposition694
  • 5.4.1 Introduction694
  • 5.4.2 Pulsed Laser Deposition System695
  • 5.4.3 The Ablation Mechanism698
  • 5.4.4 Advantages and Limitations700
  • 5.4.5 Materials Survey705
  • 5.4.6 Future Outlook708
  • References708
  • Chapter 5.5. Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition711
  • 5.5.1 Introduction711
  • 5.5.2 Equipment and Other Practical Considerations717
  • 5.5.3 Process Scaleup723
  • 5.5.4 Conclusion727
  • References728
  • Chapter 5.6. Common Analytical Methods for Surface and Thin Film731
  • 5.6.1 Introduction731
  • 5.6.2 The Electron Spectroscopies732
  • 5.6.3 Methods Based on Ion Bombardment745
  • 5.6.4 UHV Generation and System Considerations for Surface Analysis755
  • References757
  • Part 6: Large-Scale Vacuum-Based Processes759
  • Chapter 6.1. Roll-to-Roll Vacuum Coating761
  • 6.1.1 Overview of Roll-to-Roll Vacuum Coating761
  • 6.1.2 Typical Products764
  • 6.1.3 Materials and Deposition Processes Commonly Used in Roll-to-Roll Coating765
  • 6.1.4 Vacuum Systems for Roll-to-Roll Coating Applications775
  • 6.1.5 Substrates (Webs)779
  • 6.1.6 Process Control783
  • 6.1.7 Specific Problems Exhibited by Coatings784
  • References787
  • Chapter 6.2. The Development of Ultra-High-Vacuum Technology for Particle Accelerators and Magnetic789
  • 6.2.1 Introduction789
  • 6.2.2 Storage Rings and the Need for UHV790
  • 6.2.3 UHV for Early Storage Rings793
  • 6.2.4 Storage Ring Vacuum Vessel and Pumping System Developments796
  • 6.2.5 Cold-Bore Machines798
  • 6.2.6 Superconducting RF Accelerators800
  • 6.2.7 The Next-Generation Big Accelerator?801
  • 6.2.8 The Magnetic Fusion Road Map801
  • 6.2.9 The Early History of Magnetic Fusion803
  • 6.2.10 Model C: The First UHV Fusion Device804
  • 6.2.11 The Russian Revolution in Fusion: Tokamaks805
  • 6.2.12 Plasma Impurities and Vacuum Technology806
  • 6.2.13 Toward the Breakeven Demonstrations808
  • 6.2.14 The Next Step in Fusion810
  • Acknowledgments810
  • References812
  • Index815
Book details
  • Vendor Elsevier S & T
  • SKU 9780123520654
  • ISBN-13 9780080533759
  • Author Hoffman, Dorothy; Singh, Bawa; Thomas, III, John H.
  • Category Technology & Engineering
  • Subject Industrial Technology

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The Handbook of Vacuum Technology consists of the latest innovations in vacuum science and technology with a strong orientation towards the vacuum practitioner. It covers many of the new vacuum pumps, materials, equipment, and applications. It also details the design and maintenance of modern vacuum systems. The authors are well known experts in their individual fields with the emphasis on performance, limitations, and applications rather than theory. There aremany useful tables, charts, and figures that will be of use to the practitioner.

Key Features
* User oriented with many useful tables, charts, and figures of use to the practitioner
* Reviews new vacuum materials and equipment
* Illustrates the design and maintenance of modern vacuum systems
* Includes well referenced chapters