Elsevier S & T

Industrial Applications of Batteries: From Cars to Aerospace and Energy Storage

Broussely, Michel; Pistoia, Gianfranco

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Table of contents

Front CoverCover
Industrial Applications of Batteriesiii
Copyright Pageiv
Prefacev
Table of Contentsvii
List of Contributorsxxi
Chapter 1. Nonaqueous Batteries Used in Industrial Applications1
1.1. Introduction1
1.2. Primary Lithium Batteries1
1.2.1. Lithium/Sulfur Dioxide Batteries2
1.2.1.1. Cell Construction and Performance3
1.2.2. Lithium/Thionyl Chloride Batteries5
1.2.2.1. Cell Construction and Performance6
1.2.3. Lithium/Manganese Dioxide Batteries10
1.2.3.1. Cell Construction and Performance11
1.2.4. Lithium/Carbon Monofluoride Batteries14
1.2.4.1. Materials, Electrode Reactions, Cell Types and Performance15
1.2.5. Basic Parameters of Primary Li Batteries17
1.3. Rechargeable Batteries17
1.3.1. Lithium-Ion Batteries17
1.3.1.1. Carbons18
1.3.1.2. Positive Electrodes21
1.3.1.3. Liquid Electrolytes22
1.3.1.4. Cell Construction and Performance (with Liquid Electrolytes)23
1.3.1.5. Li-Ion Batteries with Polymeric Electrolytes29
1.3.1.6. Examples of Applications30
1.3.2. Batteries with a Lithium Electrode32
1.3.2.1. Lithium/Sulfur Batteries32
1.3.2.2. Li-Metal-Polymer Batteries32
1.3.2.3. Li-Al/Iron Sulfide Batteries38
1.3.3. Batteries with a Sodium Electrode41
1.3.3.1. Sodium/Sulfur Batteries42
1.3.3.2. Sodium/Nickel Chloride (Zebra) Batteries46
1.3.4. Basic Parameters of Secondary Nonaqueous Batteries49
References51
Chapter 2. Aqueous Batteries Used in Industrial Applications53
2.1 Introduction53
2.2 Lead/Acid Batteries53
2.2.1. Electrodes53
2.2.2. Grids55
2.2.3. Plate Designs55
2.2.4. Electrolyte and Separators57
2.2.5. Charge/Discharge Reactions57
2.2.6. Design Features and Applications59
2.2.7. Discharge Characteristics, Peukert Equation and Self-Discharge63
2.2.8. Charging Methods65
2.3. Nickel/Cadmium Batteries66
2.3.1. Introduction66
2.3.2. Types of Ni/Cd Batteries66
2.3.3. Charge/Discharge Reactions69
2.3.4. Discharge Characteristics, Memory Effect and Self-Discharge71
2.3.5. Charging Techniques73
2.3.6. Cycle Life74
2.3.7. Applications76
2.4. Nickel/Metal Hydride Batteries77
2.4.1. Materials and Electrode Reactions77
2.4.2. Cell Construction and Performance80
2.4.3. Charging the Ni/MH Battery83
2.4.4. Cycle and Battery Life86
2.4.5. Applications86
2.5. Nickel/Hydrogen Batteries89
2.6. Nickel/Iron Batteries91
2.7. Nickel/Zinc Batteries94
2.8. Zinc/Air Batteries97
2.9. Silver/Zinc Batteries101
2.10. Zinc/Bromine Batteries103
2.11. Vanadium Redox-Flow Batteries106
2.12. Alkaline Primary Batteries108
2.12.1. Electrode Materials and Processes109
2.12.2. Cell Construction110
2.12.3. Cell Performance and Applications111
2.13. Basic Parameters of Aqueous Secondary Batteries114
References114
Chapter 3. Characterization of Batteries by Electrochemical and Non-Electrochemical Techniques119
3.1. Introduction119
3.2. Categories of Battery Materials120
3.2.1. Electrode Materials120
3.2.1.1. General Features120
3.2.1.2. Negative Electrodes122
3.2.1.3. Positive Electrodes124
3.2.2. Electrolyte Systems126
3.2.2.1. Aqueous Solutions126
3.2.2.2. Nonaqueous Solutions126
3.2.2.3. Solid Electrolyte Systems127
3.2.3. Supporting Elements127
3.2.3.1. Current Collectors127
3.2.3.2. Separators and Membranes128
3.3. Stages and Levels in Battery Characterization129
3.3.1. Introduction129
3.3.2. Non-Destructive Studies of Full Cells129
3.3.3. Post-Mortem Analysis of Full Cells129
3.3.4. Half Cell Testing130
3.3.5. Solution Studies130
3.3.6. Electrode Studies - Bulk131
3.4. A Brief Summary of Available Techniques Related to the Characterization of Batteries132
3.4.1. Glove Box Operations132
3.4.2. Bulk Analytical Tools133
3.4.2.1. Basics of Mass Spectrometry133
3.4.2.2. Mossbauer Spectroscopy134
3.4.2.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance135
3.4.2.4. IR, UV-Vis, Raman136
3.4.2.5. Inductively Coupled Plasma139
3.4.2.6. Diffraction Techniques (X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction)140
3.4.2.7. X-Ray Techniques: EXAFS and XANES141
3.4.3. Microscopy142
3.4.3.1. Electron Microscopy and Related Techniques142
3.4.3.2. Atomic Force Microscopy144
3.4.4. Analysis of Surface Area by Gas Adsorption Processes146
3.4.5. Thermal Analysis147
3.4.5.1. DTA, DSC and TGA147
3.4.5.2. Accelerating Rate Calorimetry148
3.4.6. Surface Analysis149
3.4.6.1. General Remarks149
3.4.6.2. FTIR and Raman Spectroscopies149
3.4.6.3. XPS and AES152
3.4.7. Electrochemical Techniques155
3.4.7.1. Introduction155
3.4.7.2. Fine Electroanalytical Techniques155
3.4.8. Some Miscellaneous Techniques160
3.4.9. In Situ Measurements162
3.5. Typical Studies of Electrolyte Solutions and Solid Electrolytes167
3.5.1. Evaluation of Solvents Parameters and Solutions Conductivity167
3.5.2. Electrochemical Windows of Electrolyte Solutions169
3.5.3. Thermal Studies171
3.6. Typical Studies of Electrodes and Electrode Materials173
3.6.1. The Scheme of Material Research173
3.6.2. On the Electrochemical Characterization of Battery Electrodes175
3.6.2.1. Metallic Electrodes175
3.6.2.2. Electrodes for Flow Batteries (e.g. Air Batteries) and Batteries with Liquid Cathodes176
3.6.2.3. Composite Electrodes177
3.6.3. On the Surface Characterization of Battery Electrodes184
3.7. Measurements of Complicated Batteries186
3.7.1. Introduction – General Aspects186
3.7.2. Examples of Standard Electrochemical Performance Tests for Commercial and Prototype Batteries187
3.7.3. Measurements of Prototype Batteries, Impedance Measurements and the Study of Failure Mechanis189
3.7.4. Safety Features and Safety Tests192
3.8. Theoretical Aspects of Battery Characterization192
3.9. Concluding Remarks193
Acknowledgements193
References194
Chapter 4. Traction Batteries. EV and HEV203
4.1. Introduction203
4.2. The Different Types of Electric Vehicles204
4.2.1. Electric Vehicles (EV)204
4.2.2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)208
4.2.2.1. Micro Hybrids "Stop and Start"210
4.2.2.2. Soft Hybrids "Stop and Go"211
4.2.2.3. Mild Hybrids212
4.2.2.4. Full Hybrids or "Power Assist"212
4.2.2.5. Plug-in Hybrids (PHEV)213
4.2.2.6. Fuel Cell Hybrid EV213
4.2.2.7. Large Hybrid Vehicles: Transit Buses, Light Trucks and Tramways214
4.3. Battery Technology for Traction214
4.3.1. Lead Acid215
4.3.1.1. Lead Acid Batteries for Micro Hybrids218
4.3.2. Nickel Cadmium221
4.3.2.1. Nickel Cadmium for EVs222
4.3.3. Nickel Metal Hydride228
4.3.3.1. NiMH Batteries for EVs229
4.3.3.2. NiMH Batteries for HEVs231
4.3.4. Lithium Ion242
4.3.4.1. Lithium Ion Technology246
4.3.4.2. Lithium Ion Batteries for EVs247
4.3.4.3. Lithium Ion Batteries for HEVs256
4.3.5. Lithium Polymer Batteries262
4.3.5.1. Battery Chemistry and Technology263
4.3.5.2. Integration in Vehicle263
4.3.6. Sodium Nickel Chloride Battery265
4.3.6.1. Battery Chemistry and Technology265
4.3.6.2. Bench Tests267
4.3.6.3. On board Testing268
4.4. Conclusion268
Acknowledgments269
References269
Chapter 5. Aerospace Applications. I. Satellites, Launchers, Aircraft273
5.1. Introduction273
5.2. Satellite Batteries273
5.2.1. Satellite Requirements274
5.2.1.1. GEO Satellites (Geostationary Earth Orbit)274
5.2.1.2. LEO Satellites (Low Earth Orbit)277
5.2.1.3. MEO and HEO Satellites (Medium Earth Orbit and High Earth Orbit)279
5.2.2. Satellite Battery Technologies280
5.2.2.1. NiCd Batteries281
5.2.2.2. NiH2 Batteries288
5.2.2.3. Li-Ion Batteries297
5.3. Launcher Batteries308
5.3.1. Rechargeable Batteries309
5.3.2. Primary Batteries311
5.3.2.1. Silver-Zinc Batteries311
5.3.2.2. Lithium Batteries312
5.3.3. Thermal Batteries314
5.4. Aircraft Batteries314
5.4.1. Batteries on Board Aircraft314
5.4.2. Role of the Main Aircraft Battery314
5.4.3. Defining the Aircraft Environment315
5.4.4. Current Technology317
5.4.5. Future Trends323
List of Acronyms324
References325
Chapter 6. Aerospace Applications. II. Planetary Exploration Missions (Orbiters, Landers, Rovers and327
6.1. Introduction327
6.2. General Characteristics of Space Batteries328
6.3. Planetary and Space Exploration Missions329
6.3.1. Robotic Space Exploration330
6.3.1.1. Orbiters330
6.3.1.2. Fly-by and Sample-Return Missions332
6.3.1.3. Landed Missions – Lander332
6.3.1.4. Landed Missions – Rovers333
6.3.1.5. Landed Missions – Probes334
6.3.1.6. Impactors and Penetrators335
6.3.1.7. Miscellaneous Science Missions336
6.3.2. Human Exploration Missions336
6.3.2.1. Space Shuttle336
6.3.2.2. Crew Exploration Vehicles336
6.3.2.3. Planetary Ascent Stage and Descent Stage Modules337
6.3.2.4. Extra-Vehicular Activities (EVA)338
6.3.2.5. NASA's Future Surface Exploration Missions338
6.4. Past and Current Planetary Missions339
6.4.1. Lunar Missions (Apollo)339
6.4.2. Missions to Mars and Other Planets339
6.4.3. Other Missions354
6.5. Future Mars Missions356
6.6. Aerospace Battery Technologies357
6.6.1. Primary Batteries357
6.6.1.1. Silver-Zinc357
6.6.1.2. Lithium-Sulfur Dioxide359
6.6.1.3. Lithium-Thionyl Chloride361
6.6.1.4. Lithium Carbon Monofluoride361
6.6.1.5. Comparative Assessment of Primary Batteries362
6.6.2. Thermal Batteries363
6.6.3. Rechargeable Batteries365
6.6.3.1. Silver-Zinc365
6.6.3.2. Nickel-Cadmium365
6.6.3.3. Nickel-Hydrogen368
6.6.3.4. Nickel-Metal Hydride373
6.6.3.5. Lithium-Ion374
6.7. Unique Performance Attributes of Aerospace Li-Ion Batteries380
6.7.1. Low Temperature Performance of Li-Ion Batteries381
6.7.2. Radiation Tolerance382
6.7.3. Calendar Life384
6.8. Lithium Batteries – Advanced Systems384
6.9. Concluding Remarks on Rechargeable Batteries387
Acknowledgements388
References388
Chapter 7. Stationary Applications. I. Lead-Acid Batteries for Telecommunications and UPS395
7.1. Introduction395
7.2. The Lead-Acid Battery Technology396
7.3. Large Batteries402
7.4. Improvement of Power Performance409
7.5. Features of VRLA Technology417
7.6. Gel Batteries430
7.7. AGM Batteries435
7.8. Future Trends442
7.9. Conclusions451
References451
Chapter 8. Stationary Applications. II. Load Levelling455
8.1. Signification of Stationary Application455
8.1.1. Electric Power Systems455
8.1.2. Load Curves and Allocation for Power Plants456
8.1.3. Load Levelling457
8.1.4. Load Frequency Control458
8.1.5. Other Applications458
8.1.6. Present Conditions458
8.1.7. Future Prospects459
8.2. Sodium-Sulfur Battery Systems460
8.2.1. Battery Chemistry and Components460
8.2.2. Practical System462
8.2.3. Capital Cost468
8.3. Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Systems468
8.3.1. Battery Chemistry and Components468
8.3.2. Practical System470
8.4. Other Secondary Battery Systems475
8.4.1. Lead-Acid Battery Systems475
8.4.2. Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery Systems475
8.4.3. Lithium-Ion Battery Systems477
8.5. Other Electric Energy Storage Systems478
8.5.1. Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage Systems479
8.5.2. Compressed Air Energy Storage Systems479
8.5.3. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Systems482
8.5.4. Electric Double Layer Capacitors484
8.5.5. Flywheel Energy Storage System485
8.6. Comparison486
8.6.1. Existing Systems486
8.6.2. Lifetime and Capital Cost486
8.6.3. Output Power and Stored Energy Densities489
8.6.4. Cycle Efficiency492
Acknowledgment494
References494
Chapter 9. Stationary Applications. III. Lead-Acid Batteries for Solar and Wind Energy Storage497
9.1. Introduction497
9.2. Energy Storage for Solar and Wind Systems498
9.3. Flooded Batteries502
9.4. Large Batteries505
9.5. Small Systems with VRLA Batteries512
9.6. Large Systems with Gel Batteries524
9.7. Further Developments537
9.8. Conclusions543
References543
Chapter 10. Stationary Applications. IV. The Role of Nickel-Cadmium Batteries.547
10.1. Introduction547
10.2. History547
10.3. Chemistry548
10.3.1. Memory Effect549
10.4. Construction Features of Nickel-Cadmium Cells550
10.4.1. Plate Technology550
10.4.2. Active Materials551
10.4.3. Separators552
10.4.4. Electrolyte552
10.4.5. Range of Products Available552
10.5. Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics552
10.5.1. Performance at High and Low Temperatures553
10.5.2. Lifetime at High Temperatures554
10.5.3. Cycling Behaviour554
10.5.4. Charge Characteristics555
10.6. Cost and Reliability Considerations556
10.7. A Large Battery in an Energy Storage Application558
10.7.1. Introduction558
10.7.2. Defining the BESS558
10.7.3. The BESS Design559
10.7.3.1. The Battery559
10.7.3.2. The Electrical System560
10.7.4. Operating Results561
10.7.5. Awards561
10.7.6. Final Considerations562
10.8. Small Batteries in Telecommunication Applications562
10.9. Lifetime and Reliability: The Case of an Old Battery564
10.10. Nickel-Cadmium Applications Summary566
References571
Chapter 11. Miscellaneous Applications. I. Metering, Power Tools, Alarm/Security, Medical Equipments573
11.1. The Power Sources573
11.1.1. The Different Electrochemical Systems573
11.1.2. How to Select the Right Power Source?577
11.2. Metering Systems578
11.2.1. Heat Meters and HCA (Heat Cost Allocators)580
11.2.2. Power (Electricity) Meters581
11.2.3. Gas Meters582
11.2.4. Water Meters583
11.2.5. Data Loggers with RF Transmission583
11.2.6. Data Loggers with GSM or GPRS Transmission584
11.2.7. AMR (Automatic Meter Readers)585
11.2.8. Others586
11.3. Remote Mobile Monitoring587
11.3.1. ID Tags587
11.3.2. Bar Code Portable Readers589
11.3.3. GPS (Global Positioning Systems)590
11.3.4. GSM (Global System for Mobile Phones) Modules591
11.4. Automatic Assistance Systems592
11.4.1. SARSAT/COSPAS Beacons592
11.4.2. Safety Lights594
11.5. Alarm and Security Systems594
11.5.1. Emergency Light Units (ELUs)595
11.5.2. Wireless Alarm Sensors596
11.5.3. Wireless Alarm Central Units597
11.5.4. Alarm Sirens597
11.5.5. ZigBee598
11.5.6. Access Control Systems599
11.5.7. Remote Level Control Systems600
11.5.8. Telematics Systems601
11.5.9. Power Line Surveillance601
11.5.10. PIGs601
11.6. Memory Back Up (MBU) - Real Time Clocks (RTC)602
11.7. Professional Cordless Tools603
11.7.1. Drills604
11.7.2. Drills and Screw Drivers-Wrenches605
11.7.3. Screw Drivers605
11.7.4. Grinders and Sanders605
11.7.5. Planers606
11.7.6. Saws (Circular, Jig, Sabre, Diamond, etc.)606
11.7.7. Mini Tools606
11.7.8. Irrigation Systems607
11.7.9. Hedge Trimmers, Chain Saws, Pruning Shears607
11.8. Professional Appliances608
11.8.1. Handheld Terminals608
11.8.2. Professional A/V (Audio/Video) Equipments609
11.9. Ambulatory Medical Equipments610
11.9.1. Portable Defibrillator Systems610
11.9.2. Inter-Cardial Pump Systems611
11.9.3. Ventricular Assist Pump Systems612
11.9.4. Emergency Portable Medical Fluid Warmers612
11.9.5. Powered Respirators613
11.9.6. Special Medical Tools614
11.10. Conclusion614
Acknowledgements615
Chapter 12. Miscellaneous Applications. II. Tracking Systems, Toll Collection, Oil Drilling, Car Acc617
12.1. Introduction617
12.2. Tyre Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS)617
12.2.1. Direct, Indirect and Battery-Less TPMS618
12.2.2. Power Consumption619
12.2.3. Power Sources for TPMS619
12.3. Electronic Toll Collection620
12.3.1. Toll Collection Systems621
12.3.2. Power Sources621
12.4. Automatic Crash Notification (ACN)622
12.4.1. Electrical Requirements and Power Sources623
12.5. Tracking624
12.5.1. Tracking Methods624
12.5.1.1. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)624
12.5.1.2. GPS (Global Positioning System)625
12.5.2. GPS Transmitters626
12.5.3. Power Sources628
12.5.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Available Batteries631
12.6. Oil Drilling632
12.6.1. Applications633
12.6.2. Power Requirements634
12.6.3. Criteria of Battery Choice636
12.6.4. Battery Chemistry638
12.6.5. Future Developments640
12.7. Oceanography641
12.7.1. Applications642
12.7.2. Power Requirements642
12.7.3. Criteria of Battery Choice643
References647
Chapter 13. Battery Management and Life Prediction649
13.1. Definitions649
13.1.1. Battery Management649
13.1.2. Battery Life Prediction650
13.2. Monitoring & Measuring652
13.2.1. Cell Monitoring652
13.2.2. Cell Measurement655
13.2.3. Battery Monitoring656
13.2.4. Battery Measurement657
13.3. Battery Management Functions657
13.3.1. Charge Management658
13.3.1.1. Charge Management with Temperature659
13.3.1.2.Charge Management with Voltage660
13.3.1.3. Charge Management with Other Means661
13.3.2. Discharge Management663
13.3.2.1. Discharge Management with Voltage664
13.3.2.2.Discharge Management with Temperature and Current666
13.3.2.3. Discharge Management with State-of-Charge668
13.3.3. Safety Management670
13.3.4. "Smart Battery System" – A Specific Battery Management Example671
13.4. Life Prediction673
13.4.1. Performance Prediction: Stage One Developments675
13.4.2. Life Prediction with Laboratory Evaluations: Stage Two Development679
13.4.3. Life Prediction in Practical Use: Stage Three Developments683
13.4.4. Future Directions686
References688
Chapter 14. Battery Collection and Recycling691
14.1. Introduction691
14.2. Eco-efficiency Study on Recycling Techniques692
14.3. Trans-Boundary Movement of Batteries within the OECD Member States696
14.4. Battery Collection Schemes699
14.4.1. The Particular European Situation699
14.4.2. Financing the Schemes700
14.4.3. A Closed Loop Concept to Reduce the Exposure to Metal Price Fluctuation703
14.5. The Particular Example of a Battery Producer: SAFT704
14.6. Recycling Rate: What Does It Mean?705
14.7. Battery Recycling: The Existing Technologies707
14.7.1. The Recycling of Mixed Batteries709
14.7.2. The Recycling of Batteries Containing Mercury711
14.7.3. The Recycling of Zinc-Carbon and Alkaline-Manganese Primary Batteries714
14.7.4. The Recycling of Lithium Primary Batteries718
14.7.5. The Recycling of Lead-Acid Batteries719
14.7.6. The Recycling of NiCd Batteries722
14.7.7. The Recycling of NiMH Batteries727
14.7.8. The Recycling of Li-ion and Li-Polymer Batteries730
14.8. Conclusion736
References736
Chapter 15. World Market for Industrial Batteries737
15.1. Scope & Analysis Assumption737
15.1.1. Definition of Industrial Battery737
15.1.2. Definitions of Industrial Battery Market Sectors738
15.1.3. Other Analysis Assumptions740
15.2. Driving Forces Used to Predict World Market Value740
15.3. Industrial Energy Storage Systems742
15.3.1. Battery Characteristics by Type743
15.3.2. Competing Fuel Cell Systems746
15.3.3. Competing Exotic Energy Storage Systems748
15.4. Industrial Battery Configurations748
15.4.1. Lifecycle Configurations749
15.4.2. Technical Configurations749
15.5. Driving Forces by Market Sector750
15.5.1. Computing Batteries750
15.5.2. Communications Batteries751
15.5.3. Portable Tools Batteries753
15.5.4. Other Portable Product Batteries754
15.5.5. Medical Batteries755
15.5.6. Computer Memory Batteries756
15.5.7. UPS/Stationary Batteries756
15.5.8. Military/Aerospace Batteries757
15.5.9. Industrial EV Batteries759
15.5.10. HEV/EV Batteries760
15.5.11. Auto SLI Batteries761
15.6. Historic and Predicted World Market Summary for Industrial Batteries762
References765
Subject Index767

Book details

Vendor Elsevier S & T
SKU 9780444521606
ISBN-13 9780080471273
Author Broussely, Michel; Pistoia, Gianfranco
Category Science
Subject Physical & Theoretical

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Industrial Applications of Batteries looks at both the applications and the batteries and covers the relevant scientific and technological features. Presenting large batteries for stationary applications, e.g. energy storage, and also batteries for hybrid vehicles or different tools. The important aerospace field is covered both in connection with satellites and space missions. Examples of applications include, telecommunications, uninterruptible power supplies, systems for safety/alarms, car accessories, toll collection, asset tracking systems, medical equipment, and oil drilling.
The first chapter on applications deals with electric and hybrid vehicles. Four chapters are devoted to stationary applications, i.e. energy storage (from the electric grid or solar/wind energy), load levelling, telecommunications, uninterruptible power supplies, back-up for safety/alarms. Battery management by intelligent systems and prediction of battery life are dealt with in a dedicated chapter. The topic of used battery collection and recycling, with the description of specific treatments for the different systems, is also extensively treated in view of its environmental relevance. Finally, the world market of these batteries is presented, with detailed figures for the various applications.

* Updated and full overview of the power sources for industries
* Written by leading scientists in their fields
* Well balanced in terms of scientific and technical information

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