Internal Photoemission Spectroscopy: Principles and Applications
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Table of contents
- Contentsvii
- Prefacexi
- List of Abbreviationsxiii
- List of Symbolsxv
- Chapter 1 Preliminary Remarks and Historical Overview1
- 1.1 General Concept of IPE1
- 1.2 IPE and Materials Analysis Issues2
- 1.3 Interfaces of Wide Bandgap Insulators5
- 1.4 Metal–Semiconductor Barriers8
- 1.5 Energy Barriers at Semiconductor Heterojunctions12
- 1.6 Energy Barriers at Interfaces of Organic Solids and Molecular Layers14
- 1.7 Energy Barriers at Interfaces of Solids with Electrolytes18
- Chapter 2 Internal versus External Photoemission23
- 2.1 Common Steps in Internal and External Photoemission23
- 2.1.1 Optical excitation24
- 2.1.2 Transport of excited electron to the surface of emitter25
- 2.1.3 Escape from emitter: the Fowler model29
- 2.2 IPE-Specific Features32
- 2.2.1 Effects of the collector DOS32
- 2.2.2 Effects associated with occupied electron states in the collector34
- 2.2.3 Interface barrier shape35
- 2.2.4 Electron scattering in the image-force potential well39
- 2.2.5 Effects of fixed charge in the collector42
- 2.2.6 Collector transport effects45
- Chapter 3 Model Description and Experimental Realization of IPE48
- 3.1 The Quantum Yield48
- 3.2 Quantum Yield as a Function of Photon Energy50
- 3.3 Quantum Yield as a Function of Electric Field53
- 3.4 Conditions of IPE Observation57
- 3.4.1 Injection-limited versus transport-limited current57
- 3.4.2 Thermoionic emission versus photoemission59
- 3.4.3 Photocurrents related to light-induced redistribution of electric field60
- 3.5 Experimental Approaches to IPE62
- 3.5.1 IPE sample design62
- 3.5.2 Optical input designs64
- 3.5.3 IPE signal detection65
- Chapter 4 Internal Photoemission Spectroscopy Methods67
- 4.1 IPE Threshold Spectroscopy68
- 4.1.1 Contributions of different bands to IPE68
- 4.1.2 The Schottky plot analysis72
- 4.1.3 Separation of different contributions to photocurrent73
- 4.2 IPE Yield Spectroscopy75
- 4.2.1 Mechanism of the yield modulation76
- 4.2.2 Application of the IPE yield modulation to Si surface monitoring78
- 4.2.3 Model for the optically induced yield modulation82
- 4.3 Spectroscopy of Carrier Scattering85
- 4.3.1 Scattering in emitter85
- 4.3.2 Scattering in collector88
- 4.4 PC and PI Spectroscopy92
- 4.4.1 Intrinsic PC of collector92
- 4.4.2 Spectroscopy of PI97
- 4.4.3 PI of near-interface states in collector: the pseudo-IPE transitions101
- Chapter 5 Injection Spectroscopy of Thin Layers of Solids: Internal Photoemission as Compared to Oth107
- 5.1 Basic Approaches in the Injection Spectroscopy108
- 5.2 Charge Injection Using IPE109
- 5.3 Carrier Injection by Tunnelling112
- 5.4 Excitation of Carriers in Emitter Using Electric Field114
- 5.5 Electron–Hole Plasma Generation in Collector117
- 5.6 What Charge Injection Technique to Choose?121
- Chapter 6 Trapped Charge Monitoring and Characterization124
- 6.1 Injection Current Monitoring124
- 6.2 Semiconductor Field-Effect Techniques127
- 6.3 Charge Probing by Electron IPE133
- 6.4 Charge Probing Using Trap Depopulation137
- 6.5 Charge Probing Using Neutralization (Annihilation)141
- 6.6 Monitoring the Injection-Induced Liberation of Hydrogen145
- Chapter 7 Charge Trapping Kinetics in the Injection-Limited Current Regime148
- 7.1 Necessity of the Injection-Limited Current Regime148
- 7.2 First-Order Trapping Kinetics: Single Trap Model150
- 7.3 First-Order Trapping Kinetics: Multiple Trap Model152
- 7.4 Effects of Detrapping154
- 7.5 Carrier Recombination Effects158
- 7.6 Trap Generation During Injection160
- 7.7 Trapping Analysis in Practice161
- Chapter 8 Transport Effects in Charge Trapping164
- 8.1 Strong Carrier Trapping Regime164
- 8.2 Carrier Trapping Near the Injecting Interface169
- 8.3 Inhibition of Trapping by Coulomb Repulsion172
- 8.4 Carrier Redistribution by Coulomb Repulsion177
- 8.5 Injection Blockage and Transition to Space-Charge-Limited Current180
- Chapter 9 Semiconductor–Insulator Interface Barriers182
- 9.1 Electron States at the Si/SiO[sub(2)] Interface183
- 9.1.1 Si/SiO[sub(2)] band alignment183
- 9.1.2 Si/SiO[sub(2)] interface dipoles184
- 9.1.3 Si/SiO[sub(2)] barrier modification by trapped charges186
- 9.1.4 Trapped ions at Si/SiO[sub(2)] interface188
- 9.2 High-Permittivity Insulators and Associated Issues189
- 9.2.1 Application of high-permittivity insulators189
- 9.2.2 Bandgap width in deposited oxide layers192
- 9.3 Band Alignment at Interfaces of Silicon with High-Permittivity Insulators195
- 9.3.1 Band alignment at interfaces of Si with elemental metal oxides195
- 9.3.2 Interfaces of Si with complex metal oxides198
- 9.3.3 Interfaces of Si with non-oxide insulators203
- 9.4 Band Alignment between Other Semiconductors and Insulating Films208
- 9.4.1 Ge/high-permittivity oxide interfaces209
- 9.4.2 GaAs/insulator interfaces212
- 9.4.3 SiC/insulator interfaces217
- 9.5 Contributions to the Semiconductor–Insulator Interface Barriers221
- Chapter 10 Electron Energy Barriers between Conducting and Insulating Materials224
- 10.1 Interface Barriers between Elemental Metals and Oxide Insulators225
- 10.1.1 Metal–SiO[sub(2)] interfaces225
- 10.1.2 Interfaces of elemental metals with high-permittivity oxides227
- 10.2 Polycrystalline Si/Oxide Interfaces231
- 10.3 Complex Metal Electrodes on Insulators237
- 10.4 Modification of the Conductor/Insulator Barriers242
- Chapter 11 Spectroscopy of Charge Traps in Thin Insulating SiO[sub(2)] Layers245
- 11.1 Trap Classification through Capture Cross-Section246
- 11.2 Electron Traps in SiO[sub(2)]248
- 11.2.1 Attractive Coulomb traps248
- 11.2.2 Neutral electron traps in SiO[sub(2)]249
- 11.2.3 Repulsive electron traps in SiO[sub(2)]251
- 11.3 Hole Traps in SiO[sub(2)]251
- 11.3.1 Attractive Coulomb hole traps252
- 11.3.2 Neutral hole traps in SiO[sub(2)]252
- 11.4 Proton Trapping in SiO[sub(2)]256
- Chapter 12 Conclusions260
- References263
- Index291
- A291
- B291
- C291
- D292
- E292
- F293
- G293
- H293
- I293
- L294
- M294
- N294
- O294
- P294
- Q295
- R295
- S295
- T295
- W295
- Y295
The monographic book addresses the basics of the charge carrier photoemission from one solid to another - the internal photoemission, (IPE) - and different spectroscopic applications of this phenomenon to solid state heterojunctions. This is the first book in the field of IPE, which complements the conventional external photoemission spectroscopy by analysing interfaces separated from the sample surface by a layer of a different solid or liquid. IPE is providing the most straightforward and, therefore, reliable information regarding the energy spectrum of electron states at interfaces. At the same time, the method provides the unique capability of analysing the heterostructures relevant to the modern micro- and nano-electronic devices as well as new materials involved in their design and fabrication.
In addition to the discussion of fundamental physical and technical aspects of IPE spectroscopic applications, several “hot topics are addressed. These include development of new insulating materials for advances Si MOS technology (both high-k gate insulators and low-k dielectrics for interconnect insulation), metal gate materials, development of heterostructures based on high-mobility semiconductors, etc. Thanks to a considerable activity in this field over the last few years, the recent results concerning band structure of most important interfaces involving novel materials can now be documented.
- First complete description of the internal photoemission phenomena
- A practical guide to internal photoemission measurements
- Describes reliable energy barrier determination procedures
- Surveys trap spectroscopy methods applicable to thin insulating layers
- Provides an overview of the most recent results on band structure of high-permittivity insulating materials and their interfaces
- Contains a complete collection of reference data on interface band alignment for wide-bandgap insulating materials in contact with metals and semiconductors
In addition to the discussion of fundamental physical and technical aspects of IPE spectroscopic applications, several “hot topics are addressed. These include development of new insulating materials for advances Si MOS technology (both high-k gate insulators and low-k dielectrics for interconnect insulation), metal gate materials, development of heterostructures based on high-mobility semiconductors, etc. Thanks to a considerable activity in this field over the last few years, the recent results concerning band structure of most important interfaces involving novel materials can now be documented.
- First complete description of the internal photoemission phenomena
- A practical guide to internal photoemission measurements
- Describes reliable energy barrier determination procedures
- Surveys trap spectroscopy methods applicable to thin insulating layers
- Provides an overview of the most recent results on band structure of high-permittivity insulating materials and their interfaces
- Contains a complete collection of reference data on interface band alignment for wide-bandgap insulating materials in contact with metals and semiconductors