Machine Vision: Theory, Algorithms, Practicalities

Davies, E. R.

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Table of contents
  • Contentsvii
  • Forewordxxi
  • Prefacexxiii
  • Acknowledgmentsxxvii
  • CHAPTER 1. Vision, the Challenge1
  • 1.1 Introduction„The Senses1
  • 1.2 The Nature of Vision2
  • 1.3 From Automated Visual Inspection to Surveillance11
  • 1.4 What This Book Is About12
  • 1.5 The Following Chapters14
  • 1.6 Bibliographical Notes15
  • PART 1: Low-Level Vision17
  • CHAPTER 2. Images and Imaging Operations19
  • 2.1 Introduction19
  • 2.3 Convolutions and Point Spread Functions39
  • 2.4 Sequential versus Parallel Operations41
  • 2.5 Concluding Remarks43
  • 2.6 Bibliographical and Historical Notes44
  • 2.7 Problems44
  • CHAPTER 3. Basic Image Filtering Operations47
  • 3.1 Introduction47
  • 3.2 Noise Suppression by Gaussian Smoothing49
  • 3.3 Median Filters51
  • 3.4 Mode Filters54
  • 3.5 Rank Order Filters61
  • 3.6 Reducing Computational Load61
  • 3.7 Sharp–Unsharp Masking65
  • 3.8 Shifts Introduced by Median Filters66
  • 3.9 Discrete Model of Median Shifts78
  • 3.10 Shifts Introduced by Mode Filters84
  • 3.11 Shifts Introduced by Mean and Gaussian Filters86
  • 3.12 Shifts Introduced by Rank Order Filters86
  • 3.13 The Role of Filters in Industrial Applications of Vision94
  • 3.14 Color in Image Filtering94
  • 3.15 Concluding Remarks96
  • 3.16 Bibliographical and Historical Notes96
  • 3.17 Problems98
  • CHAPTER 4. Thresholding Techniques103
  • 4.1 Introduction103
  • 4.2 Region-growing Methods104
  • 4.3 Thresholding105
  • 4.4 Adaptive Thresholding114
  • 4.5 More Thoroughgoing Approaches to Threshold Selection122
  • 4.6 Concluding Remarks126
  • 4.7 Bibliographical and Historical Notes127
  • 4.8 Problems129
  • CHAPTER 5. Edge Detection131
  • 5.1 Introduction131
  • 5.2 Basic Theory of Edge Detection132
  • 5.3 The Template Matching Approach133
  • 5.4 Theory of 3 X 3 Template Operators135
  • 5.5 Summary„Design Constraints and Conclusions140
  • 5.6 The Design of Differential Gradient Operators141
  • 5.7 The Concept of a Circular Operator143
  • 5.8 Detailed Implementation of Circular Operators144
  • 5.9 Structured Bands of Pixels in Neighborhoods of Various Sizes146
  • 5.10 The Systematic Design of Differential Edge Operators150
  • 5.11 Problems with the above Approach„Some Alternative Schemes151
  • 5.12 Concluding Remarks155
  • 5.13 Bibliographical and Historical Notes156
  • 5.14 Problems157
  • CHAPTER 6. Binary Shape Analysis159
  • 6.1 Introduction159
  • 6.2 Connectedness in Binary Images160
  • 6.3 Object Labeling and Counting161
  • 6.4 Metric Properties in Digital Images168
  • 6.5 Size Filtering169
  • 6.6 The Convex Hull and Its Computation171
  • 6.7 Distance Functions and Their Uses177
  • 6.8 Skeletons and Thinning181
  • 6.9 Some Simple Measures for Shape Recognition193
  • 6.10 Shape Description by Moments194
  • 6.11 Boundary Tracking Procedures195
  • 6.12 More Detail on the Sigma and Chi Functions196
  • 6.13 Concluding Remarks197
  • 6.14 Bibliographical and Historical Notes199
  • 6.15 Problems200
  • CHAPTER 7. Boundary Pattern Analysis207
  • 7.1 Introduction207
  • 7.2 Boundary Tracking Procedures212
  • 7.3 Template Matching„A Reminder212
  • 7.4 Centroidal Profiles213
  • 7.5 Problems with the Centroidal Profile Approach214
  • 7.6 The (s,y ) Plot218
  • 7.7 Tackling the Problems of Occlusion220
  • 7.8 Chain Code223
  • 7.9 The (r, s) Plot224
  • 7.10 Accuracy of Boundary Length Measures225
  • 7.11 Concluding Remarks227
  • 7.12 Bibliographical and Historical Notes228
  • 7.13 Problems229
  • CHAPTER 8. Mathematical Morphology233
  • 8.1 Introduction233
  • 8.2 Dilation and Erosion in Binary Images234
  • 8.3 Mathematical Morphology235
  • 8.4 Connectivity-based Analysis of Images249
  • 8.5 Gray-scale Processing251
  • 8.6 Effect of Noise on Morphological Grouping Operations255
  • 8.7 Concluding Remarks259
  • 8.8 Bibliographical and Historical Notes260
  • 8.9 Problem261
  • PART 2: Intermediate-Level Vision263
  • CHAPTER 9. Line Detection265
  • 9.1 Introduction265
  • 9.2 Application of the Hough Transform to Line Detection265
  • 9.3 The Foot-of-Normal Method269
  • 9.4 Longitudinal Line Localization276
  • 9.5 Final Line Fitting277
  • 9.6 Concluding Remarks277
  • 9.7 Bibliographical and Historical Notes278
  • 9.8 Problems280
  • CHAPTER 10. Circle Detection283
  • 10.1 Introduction283
  • 10.2 Hough-based Schemes for Circular Object Detection284
  • 10.3 The Problem of Unknown Circle Radius288
  • 10.4 The Problem of Accurate Center Location295
  • 10.5 Overcoming the Speed Problem302
  • 10.6 Concluding Remarks310
  • 10.7 Bibliographical and Historical Notes311
  • 10.8 Problems312
  • CHAPTER 11. The Hough Transform and Its Nature315
  • 11.1 Introduction315
  • 11.2 The Generalized Hough Transform315
  • 11.3 Setting Up the Generalized Hough Transform„Some Relevant Questions317
  • 11.4 Spatial Matched Filtering in Images318
  • 11.5 From Spatial Matched Filters to Generalized Hough Transforms319
  • 11.6 Gradient Weighting versus Uniform Weighting320
  • 11.7 Summary324
  • 11.8 Applying the Generalized Hough Transform to Line Detection325
  • 11.9 The Effects of Occlusions for Objects with Straight Edges327
  • 11.10 Fast Implementations of the Hough Transform329
  • 11.11 The Approach of Gerig and Klein332
  • 11.12 Concluding Remarks333
  • 11.13 Bibliographical and Historical Notes334
  • 11.14 Problem337
  • CHAPTER 12. Ellipse Detection339
  • 12.1 Introduction339
  • 12.2 The Diameter Bisection Method339
  • 12.3 The Chord-Tangent Method341
  • 12.4 Finding the Remaining Ellipse Parameters343
  • 12.5 Reducing Computational Load for the Generalized Hough Transform Method345
  • 12.6 Comparing the Various Methods353
  • 12.7 Concluding Remarks355
  • 12.8 Bibliographical and Historical Notes357
  • 12.9 Problems358
  • CHAPTER 13. Hole Detection361
  • 13.1 Introduction361
  • 13.2 The Template Matching Approach361
  • 13.3 The Lateral Histogram Technique363
  • 13.4 The Removal of Ambiguities in the Lateral Histogram Technique363
  • 13.5 Application of the Lateral Histogram Technique for Object Location368
  • 13.6 Appraisal of the Hole Detection Problem372
  • 13.7 Concluding Remarks374
  • 13.8 Bibliographical and Historical Notes375
  • 13.9 Problems376
  • CHAPTER 14. Polygon and Corner Detection379
  • 14.1 Introduction379
  • 14.2 The Generalized Hough Transform380
  • 14.3 Application to Polygon Detection381
  • 14.4 Determining Polygon Orientation387
  • 14.5 Why Corner Detection?389
  • 14.6 Template Matching390
  • 14.7 Second-order Derivative Schemes391
  • 14.8 A Median-Filter-Based Corner Detector393
  • 14.9 The Hough Transform Approach to Corner Detection399
  • 14.10 The Plessey Corner Detector402
  • 14.11 Corner Orientation404
  • 14.12 Concluding Remarks406
  • 14.13 Bibliographical and Historical Notes407
  • 14.14 Problems410
  • CHAPTER 15. Abstract Pattern Matching Techniques413
  • 15.1 Introduction413
  • 15.2 A Graph-theoretic Approach to Object Location414
  • 15.3 Possibilities for Saving Computation422
  • 15.4 Using the Generalized Hough Transform for Feature Collation424
  • 15.5 Generalizing the Maximal Clique and Other Approaches427
  • 15.6 Relational Descriptors428
  • 15.7 Search432
  • 15.8 Concluding Remarks433
  • 15.9 Bibliographical and Historical Notes434
  • 15.10 Problems437
  • PART 3: 3-D Vision and Motion443
  • CHAPTER 16. The Three-dimensional World445
  • 16.1 Introduction445
  • 16.2 Three-Dimensional Vision„The Variety of Methods446
  • 16.3 Projection Schemes for Three-dimensional Vision448
  • 16.4 Shape from Shading454
  • 16.5 Photometric Stereo459
  • 16.6 The Assumption of Surface Smoothness462
  • 16.7 Shape from Texture464
  • 16.8 Use of Structured Lighting464
  • 16.9 Three-Dimensional Object Recognition Schemes466
  • 16.10 The Method of Ballard and Sabbah468
  • 16.11 The Method of Silberberg et al.470
  • 16.12 Horaud's Junction Orientation Technique472
  • 16.13 An Important Paradigm„Location of Industrial Parts476
  • 16.14 Concluding Remarks478
  • 16.15 Bibliographical and Historical Notes480
  • 16.16 Problems482
  • CHAPTER 17. Tackling the Perspective n-Point Problem487
  • 17.1 Introduction487
  • 17.2 The Phenomenon of Perspective Inversion487
  • 17.3 Ambiguity of Pose under Weak Perspective Projection489
  • 17.4 Obtaining Unique Solutions to the Pose Problem493
  • 17.5 Concluding Remarks498
  • 17.6 Bibliographical and Historical Notes501
  • 17.7 Problems502
  • CHAPTER 18. Motion505
  • 18.1 Introduction505
  • 18.2 Optical Flow505
  • 18.3 Interpretation of Optical Flow Fields509
  • 18.4 Using Focus of Expansion to Avoid Collision511
  • 18.5 Time-to-Adjacency Analysis513
  • 18.6 Basic Difficulties with the Optical Flow Model515
  • 18.7 Stereo from Motion516
  • 18.8 Applications to the Monitoring of Traffic Flow518
  • 18.9 People Tracking524
  • 18.10 Human Gait Analysis530
  • 18.11 Model-based Tracking of Animals„A Case Study533
  • 18.12 Snakes536
  • 18.13 The Kalman Filter538
  • 18.14 Concluding Remarks540
  • 18.15 Bibliographical and Historical Notes542
  • 18.16 Problem543
  • CHAPTER 19. Invariants and Their Applications545
  • 19.1 Introduction545
  • 19.2 Cross Ratios: The ''Ratio of Ratios'' Concept547
  • 19.3 Invariants for Noncollinear Points552
  • 19.4 Invariants for Points on Conics556
  • 19.5 Differential and Semidifferential Invariants560
  • 19.6 Symmetrical Cross Ratio Functions562
  • 19.7 Concluding Remarks564
  • 19.8 Bibliographical and Historical Notes566
  • 19.9 Problems567
  • CHAPTER 20. Egomotion and Related Tasks571
  • 20.1 Introduction571
  • 20.2 Autonomous Mobile Robots572
  • 20.3 Active Vision573
  • 20.4 Vanishing Point Detection574
  • 20.5 Navigation for Autonomous Mobile Robots576
  • 20.6 Constructing the Plan View of Ground Plane579
  • 20.7 Further Factors Involved in Mobile Robot Navigation581
  • 20.8 More on Vanishing Points583
  • 20.9 Centers of Circles and Ellipses585
  • 20.10 Vehicle Guidance in Agriculture„A Case Study588
  • 20.11 Concluding Remarks592
  • 20.12 Bibliographical and Historical Notes592
  • 20.13 Problems593
  • CHAPTER 21. Image Transformations and Camera Calibration595
  • 21.1 Introduction595
  • 21.2 Image Transformations596
  • 21.3 Camera Calibration601
  • 21.4 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Parameters604
  • 21.5 Correcting for Radial Distortions607
  • 21.6 Multiple-view Vision609
  • 21.7 Generalized Epipolar Geometry610
  • 21.8 The Essential Matrix611
  • 21.9 The Fundamental Matrix613
  • 21.10 Properties of the Essential and Fundamental Matrices614
  • 21.11 Estimating the Fundamental Matrix615
  • 21.12 Image Rectification616
  • 21.13 3-D Reconstruction617
  • 21.14 An Update on the 8-Point Algorithm619
  • 21.15 Concluding Remarks621
  • 21.16 Bibliographical and Historical Notes622
  • 21.17 Problems623
  • PART 4: Toward Real-Time Pattern Recognition Systems625
  • CHAPTER 22. Automated Visual Inspection627
  • 22.1 Introduction627
  • 22.2 The Process of Inspection628
  • 22.3 Review of the Types of Objects to Be Inspected629
  • 22.4 Summary„The Main Categories of Inspection632
  • 22.5 Shape Deviations Relative to a Standard Template634
  • 22.6 Inspection of Circular Products635
  • 22.7 Inspection of Printed Circuits642
  • 22.8 Steel Strip and Wood Inspection643
  • 22.9 Inspection of Products with High Levels of Variability644
  • 22.10 X-ray Inspection648
  • 22.11 The Importance of Color in Inspection651
  • 22.12 Bringing Inspection to the Factory653
  • 22.13 Concluding Remarks655
  • 22.14 Bibliographical and Historical Notes656
  • CHAPTER 23. Inspection of Cereal Grains659
  • 23.1 Introduction659
  • 23.2 Case Study 1: Location of Dark Contaminants in Cereals660
  • 23.3 Case Study 2: Location of Insects665
  • 23.4 Case Study 3: High-speed Grain Location673
  • 23.5 Optimizing the Output for Sets of Directional Template Masks680
  • 23.6 Concluding Remarks683
  • 23.7 Bibliographical and Historical Notes684
  • CHAPTER 24. Statistical Pattern Recognition687
  • 24.1 Introduction687
  • 24.2 The Nearest Neighbor Algorithm688
  • 24.3 Bayes' Decision Theory691
  • 24.4 Relation of the Nearest Neighbor and Bayes' Approaches693
  • 24.5 The Optimum Number of Features696
  • 24.6 Cost Functions and Error-Reject Tradeoff697
  • 24.7 The Receiver-Operator Characteristic699
  • 24.8 Multiple Classifiers702
  • 24.9 Cluster Analysis705
  • 24.10 Principal Components Analysis710
  • 24.11 The Relevance of Probability in Image Analysis713
  • 24.12 The Route to Face Recognition715
  • 24.13 Another Look at Statistical Pattern Recognition: The Support Vector Machine719
  • 24.14 Concluding Remarks720
  • 24.15 Bibliographical and Historical Notes722
  • 24.16 Problems723
  • CHAPTER 25. Biologically Inspired Recognition Schemes725
  • 25.1 Introduction725
  • 25.2 Artificial Neural Networks726
  • 25.3 The Backpropagation Algorithm731
  • 25.4 MLP Architectures735
  • 25.5 Overfitting to the Training Data736
  • 25.6 Optimizing the Network Architecture739
  • 25.7 Hebbian Learning740
  • 25.8 Case Study: Noise Suppression Using ANNs745
  • 25.9 Genetic Algorithms750
  • 25.10 Concluding Remarks752
  • 25.11 Bibliographical and Historical Notes753
  • CHAPTER 26. Texture757
  • 26.1 Introduction757
  • 26.2 Some Basic Approaches to Texture Analysis763
  • 26.3 Gray-level Co-occurrence Matrices764
  • 26.4 Laws' Texture Energy Approach768
  • 26.5 Ade's Eigenfilter Approach771
  • 26.6 Appraisal of the Laws and Ade Approaches772
  • 26.7 Fractal-based Measures of Texture774
  • 26.8 Shape from Texture775
  • 26.9 Markov Random Field Models of Texture776
  • 26.10 Structural Approaches to Texture Analysis777
  • 26.11 Concluding Remarks777
  • 26.12 Bibliographical and Historical Notes778
  • CHAPTER 27. Image Acquisition781
  • 27.1 Introduction781
  • 27.2 Illumination Schemes782
  • 27.3 Cameras and Digitization796
  • 27.4 The Sampling Theorem798
  • 27.5 Concluding Remarks802
  • 27.6 Bibliographical and Historical Notes803
  • CHAPTER 28. Real-time Hardware and Systems Design Considerations805
  • 28.1 Introduction805
  • 28.2 Parallel Processing806
  • 28.3 SIMD Systems807
  • 28.4 The Gain in Speed Attainable with N Processors809
  • 28.5 Flynn's Classification810
  • 28.6 Optimal Implementation of an Image Analysis Algorithm813
  • 28.7 Some Useful Real-time Hardware Options816
  • 28.8 Systems Design Considerations818
  • 28.9 Design of Inspection Systems„The Status Quo818
  • 28.10 System Optimization822
  • 28.11 The Value of Case Studies824
  • 28.12 Concluding Remarks825
  • 28.13 Bibliographical and Historical Notes827
  • PART 5: Perspectives on Vision831
  • CHAPTER 29. Machine Vision: Art or Science?833
  • 29.1 Introduction833
  • 29.2 Parameters of Importance in Machine Vision834
  • 29.3 Tradeoffs836
  • 29.4 Future Directions839
  • 29.5 Hardware, Algorithms, and Processes840
  • 29.6 A Retrospective View841
  • 29.7 Just a Glimpse of Vision?842
  • 29.8 Bibliographical and Historical Notes843
  • Appendix A: Robust Statistics845
  • A.1 Introduction845
  • A.2 Preliminary Definitions and Analysis848
  • A.3 The M-estimator (Influence Function) Approach850
  • A.4 The Least Median of Squares Approach to Regression856
  • A.5 Overview of the Robustness Problem860
  • A.6 The RANSAC Approach861
  • A.7 Concluding Remarks863
  • A.8 Bibliographical and Historical Notes864
  • A.9 Problem865
  • List of Acronyms and Abbreviations867
  • References869
  • Author Index917
  • Subject Index925
  • Color Plate Sections935
Book details
  • Vendor Elsevier S & T
  • SKU 9780122060939
  • ISBN-13 9780080473246
  • Author Davies, E. R.
  • Edition 3rd
  • Category Business & Economics
  • Subject Industrial Management

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In the last 40 years, machine vision has evolved into a mature field embracing a wide range of applications including surveillance, automated inspection, robot assembly, vehicle guidance, traffic monitoring and control, signature verification, biometric measurement, and analysis of remotely sensed images. While researchers and industry specialists continue to document their work in this area, it has become increasingly difficult for professionals and graduate students to understand the essential theory and practicalities well enough to design their own algorithms and systems. This book directly addresses this need.

As in earlier editions, E.R. Davies clearly and systematically presents the basic concepts of the field in highly accessible prose and images, covering essential elements of the theory while emphasizing algorithmic and practical design constraints. In this thoroughly updated edition, he divides the material into horizontal levels of a complete machine vision system. Application case studies demonstrate specific techniques and illustrate key constraints for designing real-world machine vision systems.

· Includes solid, accessible coverage of 2-D and 3-D scene analysis.
· Offers thorough treatment of the Hough Transform—a key technique for inspection and surveillance.
· Brings vital topics and techniques together in an integrated system design approach.
· Takes full account of the requirement for real-time processing in real applications.