Elsevier S & T

Ocean Circulation and Climate: Observing and Modelling the Global Ocean

Siedler, Gerold

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Table of contents
  • Copyright Pageiv
  • Contentsv
  • Contributorsxiii
  • Forewordxvii
  • Prefacexviii
  • Acknowledgmentxx
  • Section 1: The Ocean and Climate1
  • Chapter 1.1. Climate and Oceans3
  • 1.1.1 WOCE and the World Climate Research Programme3
  • 1.1.2 The scientific approach to the complex climate system4
  • 1.1.3 Ocean–atmosphere interaction and climate5
  • 1.1.4 Rapid changes related to the oceans6
  • 1.1.5 Cryosphere and the oceans7
  • 1.1.6 Anthropogenic climate change and the oceans7
  • 1.1.7 Future climate research and ocean observing systems8
  • Chapter 1.2. Ocean Processes and Climate Phenomena11
  • 1.2.1 A global perspective11
  • 1.2.2 Air–sea fluxes12
  • 1.2.3 Ocean storage of heat and fresh water17
  • 1.2.4 Ocean circulation17
  • 1.2.5 Ocean transport of heat, fresh water and carbon23
  • 1.2.6 Climatic and oceanic variability24
  • 1.2.7 Impacts of ocean climate27
  • 1.2.8 Conclusion30
  • Chapter 1.3. The Origins, Development and Conduct of WOCE31
  • 1.3.1 Introduction31
  • 1.3.2 Large-scale oceanography in the 1960s and 1970s31
  • 1.3.3 Ocean research and climate32
  • 1.3.4 Implementation of WOCE (SSG initiatives)36
  • 1.3.5 Implementation and oversight41
  • 1.3.6 Was WOCE a success and what is its legacy?43
  • Section 2: Observations and Models45
  • Chapter 2.1. Global Problems and Global Observations47
  • 2.1.1 Different views of the ocean47
  • 2.1.2 The origins of WOCE48
  • 2.1.3 What do we know?51
  • 2.1.4 The need for global-scale observations52
  • 2.1.5 Where do we go from here?56
  • Chapter 2.2. High-Resolution Modelling of the Thermohaline and Wind-Driven Circulation59
  • 2.2.1 The improving realism of ocean models59
  • 2.2.2 Historical perspective60
  • 2.2.3 Basic model design considerations: equilibrium versus non-equilibrium solutions62
  • 2.2.4 Examples of model behaviour in different dynamical regimes64
  • 2.2.5 Concluding remarks77
  • Chapter 2.3. Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Models79
  • 2.3.1 Why coupled models?79
  • 2.3.2 Formulation of coupled models79
  • 2.3.3 Model drift and flux adjustment84
  • 2.3.4 Initialization of coupled models86
  • 2.3.5 Coupled model simulation of present and past climates87
  • 2.3.6 Coupled model simulation of future climates93
  • 2.3.7 Climate models, WOCE and future observations94
  • 2.3.8 Summary and future developments95
  • Section 3: New Ways of Observing the Ocean97
  • Chapter 3.1. Shipboard Observations during WOCE99
  • 3.1.1 The role of hydrographic measurements99
  • 3.1.2 CTD and sample measurements102
  • 3.1.3 Current measurements in the shipboard hydrographic programme111
  • 3.1.4 Shipboard meteorology120
  • 3.1.5 Summary and conclusions121
  • Chapter 3.2. Subsurface Lagrangian Observations during the 1990s123
  • 3.2.1 Determining currents in the ocean123
  • 3.2.2 Historical aspects: Stommel’s123
  • 3.2.3 The WOCE Float Programme127
  • 3.2.4 WOCE float observations129
  • 3.2.5 The future137
  • Chapter 3.3. Ocean Circulation and Variability from Satellite Altimetry141
  • 3.3.1 Altimeter observations141
  • 3.3.2 The ocean general circulation143
  • 3.3.3 Large-scale sea-level variability148
  • 3.3.4 Currents and eddies162
  • 3.3.5 Concluding discussions170
  • Chapter 3.4. Air–Sea Fluxes from Satellite Data173
  • 3.4.1 Forcing the ocean173
  • 3.4.2 Bulk parameterization173
  • 3.4.3 Wind forcing174
  • 3.4.4 Thermal forcing177
  • 3.4.5 Hydrologic forcing179
  • 3.4.6 Future prospects179
  • Chapter 3.5. Developing the WOCE Global Data System181
  • 3.5.1 Organization and planning for WOCE data systems181
  • 3.5.2 Elements of the WOCE Data System185
  • 3.5.3 The WOCE Global Data Set and future developments189
  • Section 4: The Global Flow Field191
  • Chapter 4.1. The World Ocean Surface Circulation193
  • 4.1.1 Background193
  • 4.1.2 Methodology195
  • 4.1.3 The global mean velocity and velocity variance198
  • 4.1.4 The wind-driven Ekman currents201
  • 4.1.5 Future global circulation observations203
  • Chapter 4.2. The Interior Circulation of the Ocean205
  • 4.2.1 Processes in the ocean interior205
  • 4.2.2 Observational evidence206
  • 4.2.3 Theory of gyre-scale circulation209
  • 4.2.4 The abyssal circulation211
  • 4.2.5 Conclusions213
  • Chapter 4.3. The Tropical Ocean Circulation215
  • 4.3.1 Flow and water mass transformation patterns215
  • 4.3.2 Equatorial phenomena in the Pacific Ocean216
  • 4.3.3 Equatorial Atlantic226
  • 4.3.4 Near-equatorial circulation in the Indian Ocean233
  • 4.3.5 Overall conclusions245
  • Chapter 4.4. Tropical–Extratropical Oceanic Exchange Pathways247
  • 4.4.1 The role of diffusion and advection247
  • 4.4.2 Tropical–subtropical exchanges of thermocline waters248
  • 4.4.3 Tropical–subpolar exchange of Intermediate Waters252
  • 4.4.4 Summary and further issues254
  • Chapter 4.5. Quantification of the Deep Circulation259
  • 4.5.1 Deep circulation in the framework of WOCE259
  • 4.5.2 Deep Western Boundary Currents260
  • 4.5.3 The interior: The Deep Basin Experiment266
  • 4.5.4 Summary269
  • Chapter 4.6. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current System271
  • 4.6.1 Flow in the zonally unbounded ocean271
  • 4.6.2 Observations of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current274
  • 4.6.3 Dynamics of the ACC280
  • 4.6.4 Water mass formation and conversion291
  • 4.6.5 The Southern Ocean and the global overturning circulations296
  • 4.6.6 Conclusions300
  • Chapter 4.7. Interocean Exchange303
  • 4.7.1 Interocean links303
  • 4.7.2 Bering Strait306
  • 4.7.3 Indonesian Seas307
  • 4.7.4 The Agulhas Retroflection310
  • 4.7.5 Discussion313
  • Section 5: Formation and Transport of Water Masses315
  • Chapter 5.1. Ocean Surface Water Mass Transformation317
  • 5.1.1 The problem317
  • 5.1.2 Theory of surface water mass transformation318
  • 5.1.3 Ocean surface temperature, salinity and density321
  • 5.1.4 Surface fluxes of heat, fresh water and density326
  • 5.1.5 Surface water mass transformation and formation332
  • 5.1.6 Summary335
  • Chapter 5.2. Mixing and Stirring in the Ocean Interior337
  • 5.2.1 Scales of mixing and stirring337
  • 5.2.2 Background338
  • 5.2.3 The Temporal-Residual-Mean circulation340
  • 5.2.4 Lateral dispersion between the mesoscale and the microscale345
  • 5.2.5 Diapycnal mixing in and above the main thermocline346
  • 5.2.6 Mixing in the abyss352
  • 5.2.7 Discussion354
  • Chapter 5.3. Subduction357
  • 5.3.1 A little of the background on oceanic subduction357
  • 5.3.2 Surface-layer dynamics and thermodynamics of the subduction process360
  • 5.3.3 Development of steady, continuous models: Application to numerical model analysis and observat361
  • 5.3.4 Transient response of the thermocline to decadal variability365
  • 5.3.5 Summary and outlook370
  • Chapter 5.4. Mode Waters373
  • 5.4.1 Ventilation and mode water generation373
  • 5.4.2 Definition, detection and general characteristics of mode waters374
  • 5.4.3 Geographical distribution of mixed-layer depth and mode waters in the world’s oceans376
  • 5.4.4 Temporal variability of mode water properties and distribution384
  • 5.4.5 Summary386
  • Chapter 5.5. Deep Convection387
  • 5.5.1 Convection and spreading387
  • 5.5.2 Plumes – the mixing agent391
  • 5.5.3 Temperature and salinity variability393
  • 5.5.4 Restratification396
  • 5.5.5 Summary and discussion398
  • Chapter 5.6. The Dense Northern Overflows401
  • 5.6.1 The sources401
  • 5.6.2 Overflow paths402
  • 5.6.3 Observed transport means and variability404
  • 5.6.4 Processes in the overflows411
  • 5.6.5 Analytical models of the overflow412
  • 5.6.6 Numerical models of the overflow414
  • 5.6.7 Overflow variability416
  • 5.6.8 What have we learnt in WOCE?416
  • Chapter 5.7. Mediterranean Water and Global Circulation419
  • 5.7.1 Marginal seas419
  • 5.7.2 Formation of Mediterranean Water421
  • 5.7.3 Outflow of Mediterranean Water at the Strait of Gibraltar422
  • 5.7.4 The effect of Mediterranean Water outflow on the circulation of the North Atlantic and the Wor427
  • Chapter 5.8. Transformation and Age of Water Masses431
  • 5.8.1 Background431
  • 5.8.2 Tracer methodology and techniques432
  • 5.8.3 Exemplary results433
  • 5.8.4 Outlook450
  • Section 6: Large-Scale Ocean Transports453
  • Chapter 6.1. Ocean Heat Transport455
  • 6.1.1 The global heat balance455
  • 6.1.2 Bulk formula estimates of ocean heat transport456
  • 6.1.3 Residual method estimates of ocean heat transport458
  • 6.1.4 Direct estimates of ocean heat transport459
  • 6.1.5 Discussion466
  • 6.1.6 Challenges470
  • 6.1.7 Summary473
  • 6.1.8 Outlook for direct estimates of ocean heat transport474
  • Chapter 6.2. Ocean Transport of Fresh Water475
  • 6.2.1 The importance of freshwater transport475
  • 6.2.2 Indirect estimates of oceanic freshwater transport475
  • 6.2.3 Impacts of uncertainties on model development476
  • 6.2.4 Direct ocean estimates of freshwater transport478
  • 6.2.5 Comparison of direct and indirect flux estimates483
  • 6.2.6 Mechanisms of oceanic freshwater transport486
  • 6.2.7 Global budgets487
  • 6.2.8 Summary488
  • Chapter 6.3. Storage and Transport of Excess CO2 in the Oceans: The JGOFS/WOCE Global CO2 Survey489
  • 6.3.1 Introduction489
  • 6.3.2 Background489
  • 6.3.3 The JGOFS/WOCE Global CO2 Survey495
  • 6.3.4 Synthesis of Global CO2 Survey data: Review503
  • 6.3.5 Conclusions and outlook520
  • Section 7: Insights for the Future523
  • Chapter 7.1. Towards a WOCE Synthesis525
  • 7.1.1 Exploiting the WOCE data set525
  • 7.1.2 Data-based analyses526
  • 7.1.3 Model evaluation and development535
  • 7.1.4 Ocean state estimation535
  • 7.1.5 Summary and outlook542
  • Chapter 7.2. Numerical Ocean Circulation Modelling: Present Status and Future Directions547
  • 7.2.1 Remarks on the history of ocean modelling547
  • 7.2.2 Space–time scales of ocean processes and models548
  • 7.2.3 Modelling issues549
  • 7.2.4 Atmospheric forcing and coupling553
  • 7.2.5 Organization of model development554
  • 7.2.6 Concluding remarks556
  • Chapter 7.3. The World during WOCE557
  • 7.3.1 Assessing the representativeness of the WOCE data set557
  • 7.3.2 The state of the atmosphere during WOCE558
  • 7.3.3 The analysis of decadal change in intermediate water masses of the World Ocean563
  • 7.3.4 Climatic warming of Atlantic Intermediate Waters565
  • 7.3.5 Spin-up of the North Atlantic gyre circulation567
  • 7.3.6 Altered patterns of exchange in Nordic Seas569
  • 7.3.7 System-wide changes in the Arctic Ocean571
  • 7.3.8 Interdecadal variability of Kuroshio transport573
  • 7.3.9 Evidence of water mass changes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans576
  • 7.3.10 Summary and Conclusions580
  • Chapter 7.4. Ocean and Climate Prediction – the WOCE Legacy585
  • 7.4.1 The long-term context585
  • 7.4.2 Building from WOCE588
  • 7.4.3 WOCE observations589
  • 7.4.4 WOCE and climate prediction592
  • 7.4.5 The mean state and long-term change595
  • 7.4.6 Ocean variability and prediction: GODAE597
  • 7.4.7 Institutionalizing the benefits of WOCE600
  • 7.4.8 Conclusions601
  • References603
  • Acronyms, abbreviations and terms686
  • Index693
Book details
  • Vendor Elsevier S & T
  • SKU 9780126413519
  • ISBN-13 9780080491974
  • Author Siedler, Gerold
  • Category Business & Economics
  • Subject Microeconomics

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The book represents all the knowledge we currently have on ocean circulation.
It presents an up-to-date summary of the state of the science relating to the role of the oceans in the physical climate system.

The book is structured to guide the reader through the wide range of World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) science in a consistent way. Cross-references between contributors have been added, and the book has a comprehensive index and unified reference list.

The book is simple to read, at the undergraduate level. It was written by the best scientists in the world who have collaborated to carry out years of experiments to better understand ocean circulation.