Optical Coherence Tomography: Principles and Applications
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Table of contents
- Cover
- About the Authorv
- Table of contentsvii
- Prefacexix
- Acknowledgmentsxxvii
- Color Platesxxix
- Section I1
- 1 The Basics (math, waves, etc.) for the Nonphysical Scientist3
- 1.1 General Properties of Waves and Coordinates4
- 1.2 Trigonometry6
- 1.3 Imaginary Numbers7
- 1.4 The Exponential e8
- 1.5 Infinite Series10
- 1.6 Differentiation11
- 1.7 Integration14
- 1.8 Differential Equations15
- 1.9 Vectors and Scalars16
- 1.10 Unit Vector17
- 1.11 Scalar and Vector Fields18
- 1.12 Matrices and Linear Algebra18
- 1.13 Waves19
- 1.14 Combining Waves of Two Wavelengths21
- 1.15 Fourier Series and Integrals23
- 1.15.1 Fourier Series24
- 1.15.2 Fourier Integral26
- 1.16 Dirac Delta Function27
- 1.17 Miscellaneous Basic Physics27
- References28
- Appendix 1-129
- 2 Light and Electromagnetic Waves31
- 2.1 General32
- 2.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum32
- 2.3 Vector Calculus34
- 2.3.1 Divergence34
- 2.3.2 Curl34
- 2.3.3 Gradient35
- 2.4 Maxwell’s Equations35
- 2.4.1 Faraday’s Law36
- 2.4.2 Gauss’s Law for Electrical Fields38
- 2.4.3 Gauss’s Law for a Magnetic Field38
- 2.4.4 Ampere’s Law38
- 2.5 Polarization39
- 2.6 Reflection42
- 2.7 Refraction44
- 2.8 Optical Components45
- 2.9 Lens45
- 2.10 Grin Lens46
- 2.11 Optical Fiber47
- 2.12 Energy Propagation51
- 2.13 Doppler Shifts51
- References51
- Appendix 2-153
- 3 Light in Matter57
- 3.1 Oscillating Dipole Moment61
- 3.2 Dispersion65
- 3.3 Absorption65
- 3.4 Scattering66
- 3.5 Summary69
- References69
- 4 Interference, Coherence, Diffraction, and Transfer Functions71
- 4.1 Coherence and Interference71
- 4.1.1 Coherence72
- 4.1.2 Interferometry and the Michelson Interferometer74
- 4.1.3 Partial Coherence Using a Source with Continuous Frequencies78
- 4.2 Diffraction80
- 4.2.1 Huygens and Huygens-Fresnel Principle81
- 4.2.2 Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction82
- 4.2.3 Diffraction Limited83
- 4.3 Convolution and Transfer Functions85
- 4.3.1 Transfer Function88
- References91
- Appendix 4-193
- Section II95
- 5 Optical Coherence Tomography Theory96
- 5.1 General97
- 5.2 Time Domain OCT (TD-OCT)97
- 5.2.1 Interferometry with a Monochromatic Source97
- 5.2.2 Low Coherence Interferometry with OCT100
- 5.2.3 Determination of Axial Resolution105
- 5.2.4 Transfer Function111
- 5.3 Dispersion115
- 5.4 Lateral Resolution122
- 5.4.1 Light Beam122
- 5.4.2 Paraxial Wave Equation123
- 5.4.3 Relationship between the Paraboloidal and Gaussian Wave124
- 5.4.4 The Gaussian Wave124
- 5.4.5 Properties of a Gaussian Wave125
- 5.4.6 Important Points of a Gaussian Beam Relevant to OCT126
- 5.4.7 Speckle128
- 5.5 Spectral Radar or Fourier Domain OCT (FD-OCT)129
- 5.6 Swept Source (SS-OCT)133
- 5.6.1 The Resolution135
- References136
- Bibliography138
- Appendix 5-1140
- 6 Optoelectronics and Optical Components147
- 6.1 General148
- 6.2 Sources148
- 6.2.1 Semiconductor Sources148
- 6.2.2 Femtosecond Lasers149
- 6.2.3 Doped Fiber Amplifiers149
- 6.2.4 Wavelength Scanning150
- 6.3 Interferometers150
- 6.4 Delay Lines151
- 6.4.1 Galvonometer Retroreflector152
- 6.4.2 Piezoelectric Fiber Stretcher152
- 6.4.3 Grating Based Delay Lines153
- 6.4.4 Rotating Elements156
- 6.5 Detectors156
- 6.6 Detection Electronics157
- 6.6.1 TD-OCT158
- 6.6.2 FD-OCT158
- 6.6.3 A-D Conversion/Frame Grabbers160
- 6.7 Light Delivery Devices160
- 6.7.1 Rotational Catheters/Guidewires160
- 6.7.2 Translational Devices163
- 6.7.3 Forward Imaging164
- 6.7.4 MEMS164
- References165
- Appendix 6-1169
- 7 Noise and System Performance with TD-OCT and SD-OCT175
- 7.1 Introduction175
- 7.2 Definitions177
- 7.3 Noise178
- 7.3.1 Overview178
- 7.4 Noise in CCD versus Photodiode182
- 7.5 A-D Conversion in SD-OCT and TD-OCT184
- 7.6 Embodiment and Theory184
- 7.6.1 TD-OCT184
- 7.6.2 SD-OCT186
- 7.6.3 Detector Array Signal Integration188
- 7.6.4 SS-OCT190
- 7.7 Conclusion191
- References193
- 8 Polarization and Polarization Sensitive OCT197
- 8.1 General198
- 8.2 Polarization Properties of Tissue198
- 8.3 Collagen199
- 8.4 Single Detector PS-OCT204
- 8.4.1 SDPS-OCT Theoretical Model207
- 8.4.2 Simulations with Layered Birefringent Phantoms215
- 8.4.3 Varying Differential Group Index (Layer Birefringence)215
- 8.4.4 Different Intra-Layer Medium215
- 8.4.5 Varying Layer Concentration217
- 8.4.6 Periodical Rotation of Polarization State in Reference Arm217
- 8.4.7 Use of the Fast Fourier Transform217
- 8.4.8 SDPS-OCT of Human Tissue223
- 8.5 Dual Detector PS-OCT228
- 8.5.1 Measurement of the Stokes Vector, Mueller Matrix, and Poincare’s Sphere234
- References237
- Appendix 8-1241
- 9 Adjuvant Techniques: Absorption Spectroscopy, Contrast Probes, Phase Contrast, Elastography, and E245
- 9.1 General246
- 9.2 Absorption Spectroscopy246
- 9.2.1 Absorption246
- 9.2.2 Intrinsic Absorption247
- 9.2.3 Dual Source247
- 9.2.4 Single Source Same Frequency (Spectroscopic OCT)247
- 9.2.5 Second Harmonic Generation248
- 9.2.6 OCT Dyes/Probes250
- 9.3 Elastography252
- 9.3.1 Basic Concepts252
- 9.3.2 Ultrasound Elastography252
- 9.3.3 OCT Elastography253
- 9.3.4 Limitations of the Elastography Techniques254
- 9.4 Differential Phase Measurements256
- 9.4.1 Embodiment256
- 9.4.2 Limitations262
- 9.5 Entangled Photons262
- 9.5.1 General263
- 9.5.2 Entangled States Generation263
- 9.5.3 Interference Experiments264
- 9.5.4 Ghost Imaging267
- 9.5.5 Entanglement and OCT269
- 9.6 Conclusion272
- References272
- 10 Doppler Optical Coherence Tomography277
- 10.1 The Principle of Doppler OCT278
- 10.1.1 Doppler Shift and Laser Doppler Velocimetry278
- 10.1.2 Optical Signal Evolution in Doppler OCT281
- 10.1.3 Interferogram Detection in Doppler OCT285
- 10.2 Signal Processing in Doppler OCT289
- 10.2.1 Signal Processing in Time Domain Doppler OCT290
- 10.2.2 Signal Processing in Spectral Domain Doppler OCT297
- 10.3 Applications of Doppler OCT298
- References300
- 11 Digital Image Processing Techniques for Speckle Reduction, Enhancement, and Segmentation of Optic305
- 11.1 Introduction306
- 11.2 Speckle Reduction Techniques307
- 11.2.1 Mean, Median, and Hybrid Median Filters308
- 11.2.2 Adaptive Filtering309
- 11.2.3 Other Techniques312
- 11.3 Image Segmentation Techniques314
- 11.3.1 Thresholding315
- 11.3.2 Region Growing317
- 11.3.3 Watershed Algorithm318
- 11.3.4 Edge-Based Segmentation Techniques319
- 11.3.5 Other Segmentation Techniques322
- 11.4 Summary324
- References325
- Section III331
- 12 Application of OCT to Clinical Imaging: Introduction333
- 12.1 Introduction334
- 12.2 Areas Where OCT Shows Promise as a Clinical Imaging Device334
- 12.2.1 When Biopsy Cannot Be Performed334
- 12.2.2 Where Sampling Errors with Conventional Biopsy Are Likely335
- 12.2.3 Guiding Surgical and Microsurgical Procedures335
- 12.2.4 Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of In Vitro Pathology335
- 12.3 Factors That Influence Decisions on The Clinical Relevance of OCT336
- 12.4 OCT Imaging of Human Tissue337
- 12.5 Methods for Validating the Structure in OCT Images339
- 12.5.1 General339
- 12.5.2 Histopathology339
- 12.5.3 Immunohistochemistry343
- 12.5.4 Enzymatic Assay343
- 12.5.5 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography345
- 12.5.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy345
- 12.6 Animal Models346
- 12.6.1 Justification of Need for Animals346
- 12.6.2 Justification for the Species347
- 12.6.3 Justification of the Total Number of Animals347
- 12.6.4 Drugs and Their Dosages Used for Anesthesia and Euthanasia347
- 12.6.5 Will the Animal Experience Discomfort and Is a Survival Model Utilized?348
- 12.6.6 Use of Experienced Personnel348
- 12.6.7 Registration348
- 12.6.8 Example Rat Protocol348
- 12.7 Statistical Analysis349
- 12.8 Role of Human Perception on Image Interpretation350
- 12.9 Conclusion351
- References351
- 13 Other Technologies353
- 13.1 General353
- 13.2 Structural Imaging354
- 13.2.1 Confocal Microscopy354
- 13.2.2 High Frequency Ultrasound356
- 13.2.3 Magnetic Response Imaging358
- 13.2.4 Computer Tomography359
- 13.2.5 Light-Scattering Spectroscopy361
- 13.3 Spectroscopic Techniques361
- 13.3.1 Fluorescence362
- 13.3.2 Two-Photon Laser Scanning Microscopy365
- 13.3.3 Near Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy366
- 13.3.4 Raman Scattering367
- References368
- 14 Introduction to Clinical Research Design and Analysis369
- 14.1 Elements of Study Design371
- 14.1.1 Choosing a Primary Research Question371
- 14.1.2 Descriptive versus Analytical Studies371
- 14.1.3 Threats to Validity372
- 14.1.4 Random Variability372
- 14.1.5 Bias373
- 14.1.6 Confounding374
- 14.1.7 Effect Modification374
- 14.1.8 Evaluating Threats to Validity376
- 14.2 Choice of Study Design376
- 14.2.1 Randomized, Blinded, Controlled Clinical Trials376
- 14.3 Other Study Designs378
- 14.3.1 Longitudinal Studies379
- 14.3.2 Cohort Studies379
- 14.3.3 Cross-Sectional Studies380
- 14.3.4 Case-Control Studies380
- 14.3.5 Nested Case-Control Studies381
- 14.3.6 Secondary Data381
- 14.3.7 Diagnostic Test Evaluation381
- 14.4 Elements of Data Analysis382
- 14.4.1 Types of Numerical Data382
- 14.4.2 Summarizing and Describing Data383
- 14.4.3 Variability in Data384
- 14.4.4 Making an Inference from Data385
- 14.4.5 Common Statistical Tests for Comparing Two Groups386
- 14.4.6 Power and Sample Size387
- 14.4.7 Evaluating Relationships among Continuous Measurements389
- 14.4.8 Multivariate Models389
- References389
- Appendix 14-1391
- 15 OCT in Cardiovascular Medicine393
- 15.1 General394
- 15.2 Acute Coronary Syndromes394
- 15.2.1 General394
- 15.2.2 Epidemiology395
- 15.2.3 Coronary Circulation397
- 15.2.4 Classification of Plaque398
- 15.2.5 Unstable Plaque Histopathology400
- 15.2.6 Triggers of Plaque Rupture401
- 15.2.7 Interventions403
- 15.2.8 Imaging Modalities409
- 15.2.9 OCT for Coronary Imaging414
- 15.2.10 Limitations420
- 15.2.11 Current State of Intravascular OCT Imaging427
- 15.2.12 Current OCT Markers for In Vivo Studies427
- 15.2.13 Potential Additional OCT Markers430
- 15.2.14 Technological Investigations434
- 15.2.15 Other Coronary Areas434
- 15.3 Stroke434
- 15.3.1 General434
- 15.3.2 Epidemiology435
- 15.3.3 Risk Factors435
- 15.3.4 Cerebral Circulation436
- 15.3.5 Carotid Plaque436
- 15.3.6 Imaging Approaches438
- 15.3.7 Treatment439
- 15.4 Pulmonary Hypertension440
- 15.5 Atrial Fibrillation443
- 15.6 Conclusion445
- References446
- 16 OCT in The Musculoskeletal System459
- 16 Osteoarthritis460
- 16.1.1 General460
- 16.1.2 Cartilage Structure460
- 16.1.3 Osteoarthritis Cartilage461
- 16.1.4 Knee Anatomy461
- 16.1.5 Current Imaging Modalities462
- 16.1.6 Serum and Urine Markers463
- 16.1.7 Chondroprotection and Cartilage Repair464
- 16.1.8 In Vitro and In Vivo Human Data466
- 16.2 Current OA Animal Models473
- 16.2.1 Canine Anterior Cruciate Ligament Transection Model474
- 16.2.2 Rabbit Partial Medial Meniscectomy474
- 16.2.3 Rabbit ACLT474
- 16.2.4 Guinea Pigs475
- 16.2.5 Rats475
- 16.2.6 Mice475
- 16.2.7 Assessing Cartilage OA with OCT in the Rat475
- 16.3 Tendon/Ligaments481
- 16.3.1 General Ligaments and Tendons481
- 16.3.2 OCT Imaging of Tendons and Ligaments482
- 16.3.3 Achilles Tendinopathy483
- 16.3.4 Shoulder Pain484
- 16.4 Other Potential Applications486
- 16.5 Conclusion488
- References488
- 17 OCT in Oncology493
- 17.1 General494
- 17.1.1 Epidemiology of Cancer494
- 17.1.2 Need for a Diagnostic Imaging Technique495
- 17.1.3 Epithelium495
- 17.2 Esophageal Cancer496
- 17.2.1 General496
- 17.2.2 Adenocarcinoma of the Esophagus497
- 17.2.3 Squamous Cell Carcinoma505
- 17.3 Gastric Cancer508
- 17.3.1 Epidemiology508
- 17.3.2 Risk Factors509
- 17.3.3 Staging510
- 17.3.4 Diagnosis510
- 17.4 Bladder Cancer512
- 17.4.1 Epidemiology512
- 17.4.2 Staging512
- 17.4.3 Diagnosis513
- 17.5 Lung Cancer514
- 17.5.1 Epidemiology514
- 17.5.2 Risk Factors516
- 17.5.3 Histopathology517
- 17.5.4 Staging System517
- 17.5.5 Treatment518
- 17.5.6 Screening519
- 17.6 Sclerosing Cholangitis and Cholangiocarcinoma522
- 17.6.1 Epidemiology522
- 17.6.2 Diagnosis524
- 17.7 Cervical Cancer526
- 17.7.1 Epidemiology/Histology526
- 17.7.2 Staging527
- 17.7.3 Diagnosis527
- 17.7.4 Treatment531
- 17.8 Other Potential Applications532
- 17.8.1 General532
- 17.8.2 Colon Cancer532
- 17.8.3 Postmenopausal Bleeding and Endometrial Carcinoma532
- 17.8.4 Breast Cancer533
- 17.8.5 Skin Cancer533
- 17.8.6 Oral and Pharyngeal Cancers534
- 17.8.7 Assessing Pathological Samples534
- 17.9 Conclusion534
- References534
- Appendix 17-1543
- 18 Other Applications and Conclusions547
- 18.1 General548
- 18.2 Dentistry548
- 18.2.1 General548
- 18.2.2 Anatomy and Histology548
- 18.2.3 Dental Caries551
- 18.2.4 Minimally Invasive Treatments553
- 18.2.5 Diagnosing Caries554
- 18.2.6 OCT and Dental555
- 18.2.7 Limitations557
- 18.3 Prostate Surgical Guidance558
- 18.3.1 General558
- 18.3.2 Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy559
- 18.3.3 Treatment560
- 18.3.4 OCT and BPH562
- 18.4 Nerve Repair563
- 18.4.1 General563
- 18.4.2 Repair566
- 18.4.3 Diagnostics567
- 18.4.4 OCT and Nerve Repair567
- 18.5 Vascular Repair568
- 18.5.1 General568
- 18.5.2 Vessel Re-anastomosis568
- 18.5.3 OCT and Arterial Repair570
- 18.6 Neurosurgery571
- 18.6.1 General571
- 18.6.2 Brain Tumors571
- 18.6.3 Imaging Brain Tumors573
- 18.6.4 OCT and Brain Tumor Resection574
- 18.7 The Role of OCT in Assessing Subfertility578
- 18.7.1 General578
- 18.7.2 The Oviduct580
- 18.7.3 Oviduct Pathology580
- 18.7.4 Infertility Testing581
- 18.7.5 Treatment582
- 18.7.6 OCT and Imaging the Fallopian Tubes583
- 18.8 Conclusion584
- References585
- Index591
This book gives a broad treatment of the subject which will include 1)the optics, science, and physics needed to understand the technology 2)a description of applications with a critical look at how the technology will successfully address actual clinical need, and 3) a discussion of delivery of OCT to the patient, FDA approval and comparisons with available competing technologies.
The required mathematical rigor will be present where needed but be presented in such a way that it will not prevent non-scientists and non-engineers from gaining a basic understanding of OCT and the applications as well as the issues of bringing the technology to the market.
* Optical Coherence Tomography is a new medical high-resolution imaging technology which offers distinct advantages over current medical imaging technologies and is attracting a large number of researchers.
* Provides non-scientists and non-engineers basic understanding of Optical Coherence Tomography applications and issues.
The required mathematical rigor will be present where needed but be presented in such a way that it will not prevent non-scientists and non-engineers from gaining a basic understanding of OCT and the applications as well as the issues of bringing the technology to the market.
* Optical Coherence Tomography is a new medical high-resolution imaging technology which offers distinct advantages over current medical imaging technologies and is attracting a large number of researchers.
* Provides non-scientists and non-engineers basic understanding of Optical Coherence Tomography applications and issues.