Optical Diagnostics for Thin Film Processing
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Table of contents
- Contentsvii
- Prefacexv
- Notations and Symbolsxix
- Chapter 1. Overview of Optical Diagnostics1
- 1.1 Diagnostics vs Sensors vs Transducers3
- 1.2 Attributes of in Situ Optical Diagnostics4
- 1.3 Performance Characteristics of Sensors7
- 1.4 The Need for in Situ Diagnostics8
- 1.5 Survey of Optical Probes21
- 1.6 Survey of Nonoptical Probes29
- 1.7 Thin Film Processes and Their Diagnostics Needs34
- References50
- Chapter 2. The Properties of Light57
- 2.1 Propagation59
- 2.2 Imaging61
- 2.3 Polarization Properties of Light62
- References65
- Chapter 3. The Structure of Matter67
- 3.1 Separation of Electronic and Nuclear Motion67
- 3.2 Energy Levels in Atoms and Molecules69
- 3.3 Energy Levels in Solids76
- References78
- Chapter 4. Interactions of Light with Matter for Spectroscopy81
- 4.1 Dipole Moments and Polarization81
- 4.2 Quantum Mechanics of the Interaction of Light with Matter85
- 4.3 Spectroscopy94
- 4.4 Nonlinear Optical Interactions108
- 4.5 Heating by the Probing Laser112
- Appendix: Converting Units and Equations from the Gaussian CGS to the Rationalized MKSA System113
- References116
- Chapter 5. Diagnostics Equipment and Methods119
- 5.1 Optical Components119
- 5.2 Signal Collection and Analysis139
- References154
- Chapter 6. Optical Emission Spectroscopy157
- 6.1 Mechanisms for Optical Emission160
- 6.2 Instrumentation162
- 6.3 Applications in Processing166
- References208
- Chapter 7. Laser-Induced Fluorescence215
- 7.1 Experimental Considerations218
- 7.2 Applications225
- References257
- Chapter 8. Transmission (Absorption)263
- 8.1 Experimental Considerations264
- 8.2 Gas-Phase Absorption272
- 8.3 Transmission through Adsorbates or Thin Films309
- 8.4 Transmission through Substrates for Thermometry312
- References320
- Chapter 9. Reflection327
- 9.1 Optics of Reflection328
- 9.2 Reflectometry, Ellipsometry, and Polarimetry341
- 9.3 Optical Dielectric Functions343
- 9.4 Reflection at the Interface with a Semiinfinite Material345
- 9.5 Interferometry352
- 9.6 Photoreflectance376
- 9.7 Surface Infrared Reflectometry381
- 9.8 Differential Reflectometry399
- 9.9 Surface Photoabsorption and p-Polarized Reflectance Spectroscopies403
- 9.10 Reflectance-Difference (Anisotropy) Spectroscopy413
- 9.11 Ellipsometry425
- Appendix: Terminology465
- References466
- Chapter 10. Interferometry and Photography481
- 10.1 Interferometry481
- 10.2 Photography, Imaging, and Microscopy489
- References491
- Chapter 11. Elastic Scattering and Diffraction from Particles and Nonplanar Surfaces (Scatterometry)495
- 11.1 Detection of Particles496
- 11.2 Diffraction from Surface Features522
- 11.3 Speckle Photography and Interferometry548
- References552
- Chapter 12. Raman Scattering559
- 12.1 Kinematics and Dynamics of Spontaneous Raman Scattering561
- 12.2 Instrumentation563
- 12.3 Thermometry and Density Measurements in Gases567
- 12.4 Real-Time Raman Probing of Solids and Surfaces572
- References587
- Chapter 13. Pyrometry591
- 13.1 Theoretical and Experimental Considerations592
- 13.2 Single-Wavelength Pyrometry596
- 13.3 Dual-Wavelength Pyrometry608
- 13.4 Pyrometric Interferometry609
- 13.5 Thermal Radiation during Pulsed-Laser Deposition614
- References614
- Chapter 14. Photoluminescence619
- 14.1 Experimental Considerations622
- 14.2 Probing Defects and Damage623
- 14.3 Thermometry628
- References635
- Chapter 15. Spectroscopies Employing Laser Heating637
- 15.1 Laser-Induced Thermal Desorption637
- 15.2 Thermal Wave Optical Spectroscopies642
- References651
- Chapter 16. Nonlinear Optical Diagnostics655
- 16.1 Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering656
- 16.2 Surface Second-Harmonic Generation665
- 16.3 Third-Harmonic Generation in Gases670
- References670
- Chapter 17. Optical Electron/Ion Probes673
- 17.1 Photoionization674
- 17.2 Photoemission681
- 17.3 Optogalvanic Spectroscopy682
- References685
- Chapter 18. Optical Thermometry689
- 18.1 Temperature690
- 18.2 The Need for Thermometry in Thin Film Processing692
- 18.3 Nonoptical Probes of Temperature695
- 18.4 The Physical Basis of Optical Thermometry696
- 18.5 A Comparison of Optical Thermometry Probes701
- Appendix: Representative Citations in Real-Time Optical Thermometry in Thin Film Processing705
- References713
- Chapter 19. Data Analysis and Process Control715
- 19.1 Data Acquisition and Analysis716
- 19.2 Process Modeling719
- 19.3 Process Control726
- References735
- Index739
This volume describes the increasing role of in situ optical diagnostics in thin film processing for applications ranging from fundamental science studies to process development to control during manufacturing. The key advantage of optical diagnostics in these applications is that they are usually noninvasive and nonintrusive. Optical probes of the surface, film, wafer, and gas above the wafer are described for many processes, including plasma etching, MBE, MOCVD, and rapid thermal processing. For each optical technique, the underlying principles are presented, modes of experimental implementation are described, and applications of the diagnostic in thin film processing are analyzed, with examples drawn from microelectronics and optoelectronics. Special attention is paid to real-time probing of the surface, to the noninvasive measurement of temperature, and to the use of optical probes for process control.
Optical Diagnostics for Thin Film Processing is unique. No other volume explores the real-time application of optical techniques in all modes of thin film processing. The text can be used by students and those new to the topic as an introduction and review of the subject. It also serves as a comprehensive resource for engineers, technicians, researchers, and scientists already working in the field.
Key Features
* The only volume that comprehensively explores in situ, real-time, optical probes for all types of thin film processing
* Useful as an introduction to the subject or as a resource handbook
* Covers a wide range of thin film processes including plasma etching, MBE, MOCVD, and rapid thermal processing
* Examples emphasize applications in microelectronics and optoelectronics
* Introductory chapter serves as a guide to all optical diagnostics and their applications
* Each chapter presents the underlying principles, experimental implementation, and applications for a specific optical diagnostic
Optical Diagnostics for Thin Film Processing is unique. No other volume explores the real-time application of optical techniques in all modes of thin film processing. The text can be used by students and those new to the topic as an introduction and review of the subject. It also serves as a comprehensive resource for engineers, technicians, researchers, and scientists already working in the field.
Key Features
* The only volume that comprehensively explores in situ, real-time, optical probes for all types of thin film processing
* Useful as an introduction to the subject or as a resource handbook
* Covers a wide range of thin film processes including plasma etching, MBE, MOCVD, and rapid thermal processing
* Examples emphasize applications in microelectronics and optoelectronics
* Introductory chapter serves as a guide to all optical diagnostics and their applications
* Each chapter presents the underlying principles, experimental implementation, and applications for a specific optical diagnostic