Origins of Life: On Earth and in the Cosmos
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Table of contents
- Cover
- Contentsv
- Prefacexix
- Part I: Creation of an Environment Suitable for the Origin of Life1
- Chapter 1. Origin of the Universe3
- Newton’s Universe Was Infinite and Static3
- Hubble’s Universe Was Finite and Expanding4
- The Doppler Effect Shows That Almost All Galaxies Are Moving Away from Us4
- Rate of Separation and Distance Data Suggest That the Universe Originated about 20 Billion Years Ago8
- Quasars Have Anomalously High Redshifts11
- Isotropic Background Radiation Is Believed to Be a Remnant of the Big Bang13
- Current Evidence Suggests That the Rate of Expansion of the Universe Is Increasing14
- Summary15
- Problems15
- References16
- Chapter 2. Formation of the Elements17
- Chemical Composition of the Sun Approximates Chemical Composition of the Universe18
- Five Stable Subatomic Particles and Many More Unstable Ones Have Been Identified20
- Four Types of Forces Account for All Interactions in the Universe21
- Prior to Star Formation the Only Elements Formed in Significant Amounts Were Hydrogen and Helium22
- Elements between Helium and Iron Were Produced in the Centers of Stars23
- Formation of Elements Heavier Than Iron Starts with Neutron Capture27
- Isotopes with Even Numbers of Protons Are Favored in Element Formation29
- Summary29
- Problems30
- References31
- Chapter 3. Beginnings of Chemistry33
- Atoms Are Composed of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons34
- Periodic Table Is Arranged To Emphasize Electron Structure34
- Atoms Can Combine to Form Molecules37
- Ionic Bonds Form between Oppositely Charged Atoms38
- Covalent Bonds Form between Atoms That Share Electron Pairs39
- Molecular Interactions Are Largely Due to Noncovalent Forces42
- Summary42
- Problems43
- Reference43
- Chapter 4. Element Abundances of the Planets45
- Planets Must Have Formed from the Same Nebula as the Sun45
- Planets Differ in Mass, Density, and Composition46
- Chemical Clues Concerning Earth’s Composition Come from Density Considerations and Analysis of Met49
- Terrestrial Abundances of the Elements Are A Function of Element Abundances in the Universe, Chemica52
- Jovian Planets Are Most Likely to Have Retained Their Volatiles Isotope Dating of Certain Meteorites54
- Summary55
- Problems56
- References57
- Chapter 5. Geologic, Hydrologic, and Atmospheric Evolution of Earth59
- Earth Has a Layered Structure60
- Evidence for the Layered Structure Comes from Studies of Seismic Waves61
- Core Formation Occurred during the First 100 Million Years of Earth’s History64
- Continental Movements Reflect Geologic Activity within the Mantle64
- Tectonic Plates Are Composed of Old Granites and Young Basalts68
- Volcanoes and Quakes Reflect the Existence of Convection Cells in the Upper Mantle69
- Liquid Water Covers Two-Thirds of Earth’s Surface70
- Magnetic Fields Protect Some Planets from the Solar Winds71
- Surface Temperature Has Been Delicately Balanced for Almost 4 Billion Years72
- Earth’s Intermediate Distance from the Sun Has Helped to Moderate Earth’s Surface Temperature72
- Water and Carbon Dioxide Have Helped to Moderate Earth’s Surface Temperature73
- Earth’s Atmosphere Is Subdivided into Four Regions76
- Prebiotic Atmosphere Was a Reducing One78
- Summary80
- Problems81
- References82
- Part II: Logic of Living Systems83
- Chapter 6. Cells, Organelles, and Biomolecules85
- The Cell Is the Fundamental Unit of Life85
- Biomolecules Are Composed of a Small Number of Light Elements87
- Biochemical Reactions Are a Subset of Ordinary Chemical Reactions90
- Cells and Their Organelles Are Composed of Small Molecules and Macromolecules91
- Macromolecules Form Complex Folded Structures100
- Summary103
- Problems105
- References105
- Chapter 7. Metabolic Strategies and Pathway Design107
- Thermodynamics Gives Us the Criterion to Determine the Energy Status for a Biochemical Reaction108
- Living Cells Require a Steady Supply of Starting Materials and Energy109
- Organisms Differ in Sources of Starting Materials, Energy, and Reducing Power111
- Reactions Show Functional Coupling113
- Thermodynamically Unfavorable Reaction Can Be Made Favorable by Coupling to the Adenosine Triphospha115
- Reactions Are Organized into Sequences or Pathways116
- Sequentially Related Enzymes Are Frequently Clustered117
- Activities of Pathways Are Regulated by Controlling the Amounts and Activities of the Enzymes120
- Both Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways Are Regulated by the Energy Status of the Cell120
- Regulation of Pathways Involves the Interplay of Kinetic and Thermodynamic Factors122
- Summary123
- Problems124
- Reference124
- Chapter 8. Biochemical Catalysis125
- Given Favorable Thermodynamics, Kinetic Factors Determine Which Reactions Can Occur126
- All Catalysts Obey the Same Basic Set of Rules129
- Enzyme Catalysts Are Highly Selective and Function under Very Mild Conditions131
- Each Member of the Trypsin Family of Enzymes Is Specific for Hydrolysis of a Particle Type of Peptid132
- Summary139
- Problems140
- Reference140
- Chapter 9. Storage, Replication, and Utilization of Biochemical Information141
- DNA and RNA Have Similar Primary Structures143
- Most DNAs Exist as Complementary Double-Helix (Duplex) Structures143
- Cellular RNAs Form Intricate Folded Structures Interspersed with Double-Helix and Other Motifs146
- DNA Replication Exploits the Complementary Structure That Forms between Its Two Polynucleotide Chain148
- Transcription Involves the Selective Copying of Specific Regions of Much Longer DNA Chains151
- Nascent Transcripts Undergo Extensive Changes Following Synthesis153
- Some RNAs Have Catalytic Properties153
- Proteins Are Informational Macromolecules156
- Cellular Machinery of Protein Synthesis Is Constructed from RNA and Protein Components157
- Code Used in Translation Was Deciphered with the Help of Synthetic Messengers159
- Summary161
- Problems162
- Reference162
- Part III: Biochemical and Prebiotic Pathways: A Comparison163
- Chapter 10. General Considerations Concerning the Origin of Life on Earth167
- Earth and The Origin of Life168
- Getting the Chemistry of Life Underway173
- Evolutionary Aspects of the Origin of Life182
- Experimental Approaches Exist for Studying the Origin of Life188
- Summary188
- Problems190
- References191
- Chapter 11. Biochemical Pathways Involving Carbohydrates193
- Breakdown of Sugars (Glycolysis) Follows a Linear Pathway with Many Branchpoints194
- Most of the Enzymes Used in Glycolysis Are Used in the Reverse Process of Sugar Synthesis197
- Pentose Phosphate Pathway Supplies Ribose and Reducing Power197
- Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Continues the Degradation Process Begun in Glycolysis200
- Thermodynamics of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Permits It to Operate in More Than One Way202
- Glyoxylate Cycle Permits Growth on a Two-Carbon Source203
- Summary203
- Problems205
- Reference206
- Chapter 12. Prebiotic Pathways Involving Carbohydrates207
- Synthesis of Sugars in the Prebiotic World Is Likely to Have Started with Formaldehyde209
- Formaldehyde Was Probably Synthesized in the Prebiotic Atmosphere210
- Glycolaldehyde Catalyzes the Incorporation of Formaldehyde into Sugars211
- Strongly Basic Conditions Used in the Formose Reaction Are Not Conducive to High Yields of the Aldop213
- Under Mildly Basic Conditions Formaldehyde Incorporation into Pentoses and Hexoses Is Greatly Reduce215
- Lead (Plumbous) Salts Catalyze Aldopentose Synthesis under Mildly Basic Conditions216
- Lead Salts Also Catalyze the Interconversion of Aldopentoses and the Synthesis of Aldopentoses from218
- High Yields of Ribose 2,4-Bisphosphate Can Be Synthesized under Controlled Conditions from Glycolald219
- We Still Face Problems with the Synthesis of Ribose219
- Summary220
- Problems221
- References222
- Chapter 13. Similarities and Differences between the Biosynthesis of Nucleotides and the Prebiotic S223
- Overview of Nucleotide Metabolism224
- Biosynthesis of Purine Ribonucleotides226
- Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides232
- Prebiotic Synthesis of Nucleotides234
- From Purines to Activated Nucleotides244
- Summary248
- Problems249
- References250
- Chapter 14. RNA Metabolism and Prebiotic Synthesis of RNA251
- RNA Metabolism252
- Prebiotic Synthesis of RNA256
- Effectiveness of RNA to Function as a Ribozyme Is Dependent on Its Capacity to Form Complex Folded S268
- Properties of Known Ribozymes269
- Summary279
- Problems280
- References281
- Chapter 15. Amino Acid Synthesis Now and Then283
- Amino Acid Biosynthesis284
- Prebiotic Pathways to Amino Acids296
- Pioneering Experiments of Miller and Urey Suggest a Prebiotic Route to Amino Acids That Started in t297
- Extraterrestrial Sources of Organic Material305
- Summary306
- Problems307
- References307
- Chapter 16. Chemistry of Translation309
- Steps in Translation309
- Rules for Base Pairing between Transfer RNA and Messenger RNA313
- Summary317
- Problems318
- Reference318
- Chapter 17. Early Developments in Polypeptide Synthesis319
- Noninstructed Synthesis of Polypeptides320
- Ribozyme-Instructed Synthesis of Peptides and Polypeptides322
- Steps in the Emergence of a Translation System324
- Summary328
- Problems329
- References330
- Chapter 18. Lipid Metabolism and Prebiotic Synthesis of Lipids331
- Fatty Acid Degradation332
- Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids336
- Synthesis of Phospholipids340
- Prebiotic Synthesis of Lipids345
- Summary350
- Problems351
- References352
- Chapter 19. Properties of Membranes and Their Evolution353
- Structures of Biological Membranes354
- Functions of Biological Membranes365
- Evolution of Membrane Structure and Function371
- Summary374
- Problems375
- References375
- Chapter 20. Possible Roles of Clays and Minerals in the Origin of Life377
- Did Living ClaysŽ Precede Nucleic Acids?378
- Clays Are Complexes of Cationic and Anionic Polymers378
- Are Clays Capable of Inheritable Change?385
- Could Clays of Unclear Nonclay Minerals Have Aided in the Development of the First Living Systems?386
- Summary393
- Problems394
- References394
- Part IV: Evolution of Living Systems397
- Chapter 21. Evolution of Organisms399
- Existing Organisms Have a Common Origin400
- Classical Evolutionary Tree Is Based on Morphology400
- Biochemical Record405
- Recombination and Mutation, The Ultimate Sources of Genetic Variability413
- Earth: An Ever-Changing Environment423
- Summary430
- Problems431
- References431
- Chapter 22. Evolution of the Main Energy-Producing Pathway for Aerobic Metabolism: The Tricarboxylic433
- Carbohydrate Metabolism in Anaerobes and Aerobes434
- Many Organisms Use Parts of the Krebs Cycle437
- Scheme for Evolution of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle in Prokaryotes447
- Summary448
- Problems450
- Reference450
- Chapter 23. Evolution of Photosynthesis451
- Photosynthesis Depends on the Photochemical Reactivity of Chlorophyll453
- Photosynthesis Arose Early in Evolution and Is Still Widespread among Eubacteria470
- Summary482
- Problems485
- References485
- Chapter 24. Origin and Elaboration of the Genetic Code487
- Triplet Code May Have Evolved from a Relaxed Singlet or Doublet Code488
- Middle Base in the Codon May Have Been the First One to Acquire Meaning488
- Amino Acids with Similar Side Chains Tend to Be Associated with Anticodons That Show Chemical Simila489
- Amino Acids in the Same Biosynthetic Pathway Use Similar Codons491
- Amino Acids That Contain Chemically Similar Side Chains Frequently Share Two Code Letters493
- There Is a Three-Base Periodicity in the Reading Frames That Reflects Codon Usage494
- Synonym Codons Are Used to Varying Extents in a Species-Specific Manner496
- The Code is Not Quite Universal496
- Rules Regarding Codon–Anticodon Pairing Are Species Specific498
- Changes in Codon or Antocodon Use Follow the Route with the Least Number of Steps499
- Each Synthase Recognizes a Specific Amino Acid and Specific Regions on Its Cognate tRNA500
- Summary500
- Problems501
- References502
- Prospectus503
- Prospectus503
- Research on the Origin of Life Is A Unique Endeavour503
- Earth’s Atmosphere Has Changed A Great Deal in the Course of Time504
- A Reducing Atmosphere Is Necessary for the Synthesis of HCN and CH2O506
- Phosphorylation of Nucleosides Requires Phosphate Activation507
- Nucleoside Formation Presents A Problem507
- Accomplishments and Problems Associated with Polynucleotide Synthesis507
- Sorting Out The Enantiomers: The Origin of Chirality508
- Translation Must Have Followed RNA and Ribozyme Synthesis509
- Early Functions of Lipids509
- Glossary511
- Appendix529
- Answers to Problems531
- Index549
Origins of Life on the Earth and in the Cosmos, Second Edition, suggests answers to the age-old questions of how life arose in the universe and how it might arise elsewhere. This thorough revision of a very successful text describes key events in the evolution of living systems, starting with the creation of an environment suitable for the origins of life. Whereas one may never be able to reconstruct the precise pathway that led to the origin of life on earth, one can certainly make some plausible reconstructions of it. Such discussions have greatly expanded our understanding of the principles of chemical evolution and how they compare and contrast with the principles of biological evolution. The text is strong on biochemistry and its recent applications to origins' research.
* Provides an excellent review of basic biochemistry an evolution
* Written in a clear, concise style for scientists, students, and readers interested in a scientific inquiry into the origins of life
* Written by an authority in the field, and brought fully up-to-date in light of new research
* Pulls together valuable information not found in a single source
* Organized and presented in a manner conductive for use in a college course
* Heavily illustrated to make difficult concepts concrete
* Provides an excellent review of basic biochemistry an evolution
* Written in a clear, concise style for scientists, students, and readers interested in a scientific inquiry into the origins of life
* Written by an authority in the field, and brought fully up-to-date in light of new research
* Pulls together valuable information not found in a single source
* Organized and presented in a manner conductive for use in a college course
* Heavily illustrated to make difficult concepts concrete