Elsevier S & T

Raman Amplification in Fiber Optical Communication Systems

Headley, Clifford; Agrawal, Govind

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Table of contents
  • Contentsv
  • Contributorsix
  • Chapter 1 Introduction1
  • 1.1 Optical Fibers2
  • 1.2 Raman Amplification4
  • 1.3 Advantages of Raman Amplification9
  • 1.3.1 Improved Noise Figure9
  • 1.3.2 Improved Gain Flatness11
  • 1.4 Concerns in Raman Amplification14
  • 1.4.1 Multipath Interference14
  • 1.4.2 Pump Noise Transfer to the Signal15
  • 1.4.3 Noise Figure Tilt17
  • 1.5 Advanced Concepts in Raman Amplification17
  • 1.5.1 Bidirectional Pumping19
  • 1.5.2 Higher Order Pumping19
  • 1.5.3 Frequency Modulated Pumps20
  • 1.5.4 Broadband SpectralWidth Pump Sources22
  • 1.6 Pump Sources22
  • 1.6.1 Diode Lasers23
  • 1.6.2 Raman Fiber Lasers24
  • 1.7 Summary of Chapters25
  • Chapter 2 Theory of Raman Amplifiers33
  • 2.1 Pump and Signal Equations34
  • 2.1.1 Raman Gain Spectrum36
  • 2.1.2 Single-Pump Raman Amplification39
  • 2.1.3 Multiple-Pump Raman Amplification47
  • 2.2 Performance Limiting Factors51
  • 2.2.1 Spontaneous Raman Scattering52
  • 2.2.2 Rayleigh Backscattering59
  • 2.2.3 Pump-Noise Transfer63
  • 2.3 Effects of Polarization-Mode Dispersion66
  • 2.3.1 Vector Theory of Raman Amplification67
  • 2.3.2 Average Raman Gain and Signal Fluctuations72
  • 2.3.3 Probability Distribution of Amplified Signal76
  • 2.3.4 Polarization-Dependent Gain79
  • 2.4 Ultrafast Raman Amplification83
  • 2.4.1 Pulse-Propagation Equations84
  • 2.4.2 Effects of Group-Velocity Mismatch88
  • 2.4.3 Anomalous-Dispersion Regime93
  • 2.4.4 Normal-Dispersion Regime95
  • Chapter 3 Distributed Raman Amplifiers103
  • 3.1 Benefits of Distributed Raman Amplification105
  • 3.1.1 Upgradability106
  • 3.1.2 Noise Improvements in Repeatered Systems107
  • 3.1.3 Bandwidth/Flatness108
  • 3.1.4 Gain at AnyWavelength109
  • 3.2 Beneficial Characteristics of Distributed Raman Amplifiers109
  • 3.2.1 General Benefits from the Raman Scattering Process110
  • 3.2.1.1 Simple„Intrinsic to the Fiber110
  • 3.2.1.2 Gain at AnyWavelength111
  • 3.2.1.3 Predictable Gain Coefficient112
  • 3.2.1.4 Combining PumpWavelengths113
  • 3.2.2 Noise Properties of Distributed Raman Amplifiers114
  • 3.3 Challenging Characteristics of Distributed Raman Amplifiers120
  • 3.3.1 Nonlinearities124
  • 3.3.2 Rayleigh Reflections132
  • 3.3.2.1 A Discrete Amplifier and Two Discrete Reflections133
  • 3.3.2.2 A Discrete Amplifier and Distributed Reflections (Rayleigh Reflections)135
  • 3.3.2.3 Distributed Raman Amplifier136
  • 3.3.3 Time Response140
  • 3.3.3.1 Pump-Signal Cross Talk141
  • 3.3.3.2 Signal–Pump–Signal Cross Talk146
  • 3.4 Backward Pumping149
  • 3.4.1 Wavelength Multiplexing of Pumps150
  • 3.4.2 Broadened Pumps152
  • 3.4.3 Time-Division-Multiplexed Pumps154
  • 3.5 Advanced Pumping Configurations156
  • 3.5.1 Higher Order Pumping157
  • 3.5.2 Quiet Pumps159
  • 3.6 Summary162
  • Chapter 4 Discrete Raman Amplifiers169
  • 4.1 Basic Configuration and Its Model169
  • 4.1.1 Single-Pump Amplification172
  • 4.1.2 Multiple-Pump Amplification174
  • 4.1.3 Nonlinear Phase Shift175
  • 4.2 Gain Fibers and Material176
  • 4.2.1 Raman Properties of Germano-Silicate Fibers177
  • 4.2.2 Raman Properties of Other Fiber Materials178
  • 4.3 Design Issues of Discrete Raman Amplifier180
  • 4.3.1 Maximum Raman Gain as a Function of Fiber Length180
  • 4.3.2 Figure of Merit of Gain Fiber182
  • 4.3.3 Efficiency and Linearity183
  • 4.3.4 Pump-Mediated Noise186
  • 4.3.5 ASE Noise Figure188
  • 4.3.6 Nonlinear Effects and Double Rayleigh Backscattering Noise191
  • 4.3.7 Optimum Fiber Length and Number of Stages192
  • 4.3.8 Transient Effects194
  • 4.4 Dispersion-Compensating Raman Amplifiers197
  • 4.4.1 Dispersion-Compensating Fiber197
  • 4.4.2 DCF as a Raman Gain Fiber199
  • 4.5 Wideband Operation byWDM Pumping201
  • 4.5.1 Wide Flat Composite Gain202
  • 4.5.2 Pump SRS Tilt„Effect of Saturation205
  • 4.5.3 Signal SRS Tilt„How to Define Gain205
  • 4.5.4 Control of Gain206
  • 4.5.5 Flattening Other Parameters206
  • Chapter 5 System Impairments215
  • 5.1 Introduction215
  • 5.2 Pump Noise Transfer216
  • 5.2.1 Relative Intensity Noise216
  • 5.2.1.1 Fundamental RIN Definition217
  • 5.2.1.2 Simplified RIN Definition218
  • 5.2.2 Undepleted Model220
  • 5.2.2.1 Forward Pumping with NoWalk-off220
  • 5.2.2.2 Pump–SignalWalk-off223
  • 5.2.3 Performance Degradation Due to RIN235
  • 5.2.4 Impact of Pump Depletion238
  • 5.2.5 Measurements of RIN Transfer240
  • 5.2.6 Low RIN Pump Laser Technologies242
  • 5.2.7 Summary246
  • 5.3 Multipath Interference Penalties249
  • 5.3.1 Analysis250
  • 5.3.1.1 OSNR Due to Double Rayleigh Scattering251
  • 5.3.1.2 Transmission Impairment Due to DRS254
  • 5.3.1.3 Polarization Properties of DRS255
  • 5.3.2 Measurement of DRS Noise256
  • 5.3.2.1 Electrical Beat-Noise Measurement Technique256
  • 5.3.2.2 Time-Domain Extinction Measurement Technique259
  • 5.3.3 MPI Suppression261
  • 5.3.4 Summary263
  • 5.4 Appendix263
  • Chapter 6 Semiconductor Pump Lasers267
  • 6.1 Technology Basis of High-Power Semiconductor Lasers267
  • 6.1.1 High-Power Semiconductor Laser Module268
  • 6.1.2 Fundamentals of High-Power Semiconductor Laser Chip269
  • 6.1.2.1 Active Region270
  • 6.1.2.2 BH Structure273
  • 6.1.2.3 Asymmetric Coating274
  • 6.1.2.4 Cavity Length275
  • 6.1.2.5 Width of Active Region278
  • 6.1.3 Other Approaches to High-Power Pump Laser278
  • 6.1.3.1 RidgeWaveguide Laser278
  • 6.1.3.2 Other Novel Structures279
  • 6.1.3.3 New Material281
  • 6.1.4 Heat Exhaustion of the Laser Chip281
  • 6.1.5 Optical Coupling System282
  • 6.1.6 Performance of 14xx-nm Pump Lasers283
  • 6.1.6.1 Characteristics of Pump Laser Module283
  • 6.1.6.2 Reliability284
  • 6.2 Semiconductor Pump Lasers for Raman Amplifiers286
  • 6.2.1 Fiber Bragg Grating Lasers287
  • 6.2.2 Fabry-Perot Lasers293
  • 6.2.3 Inner-Grating Multimode Lasers294
  • 6.2.4 Hybrid Pump297
  • Chapter 7 Cascaded Raman Resonators303
  • 7.1 Overview304
  • 7.1.1 Pump Laser307
  • 7.1.2 Raman Fiber313
  • 7.1.3 Fiber Bragg Gratings317
  • 7.1.3.1 Photosensitivity320
  • 7.1.3.2 Grating Writing321
  • 7.2 Design of a Cascaded Raman Resonator323
  • 7.2.1 Optimization of Fiber Length, Output Coupler Reflectivity, and Splice Loss325
  • 7.2.2 Fiber Type and PumpWavelength Optimization330
  • 7.2.3 Linewidth Considerations332
  • 7.2.4 Noise Properties339
  • 7.3 Multiple Wavelength Cascaded Raman Resonators340
  • 7.3.1 Obtainable Operating Points347
  • 7.3.2 Operating Point Stability352
  • 7.3.3 Temporal Behavior of an MWRFL353
  • 7.3.4 Six-Wavelength Raman Fiber Lasers355
  • 7.3.5 Second-Order Raman Fiber Lasers357
  • Prefacexi
  • Index367
Book details
  • Vendor Elsevier S & T
  • SKU 9780120445066
  • ISBN-13 9780080480541
  • Author Headley, Clifford; Agrawal, Govind
  • Category Technology & Engineering
  • Subject Fiber Optics

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Optical fiber telecommunications depend upon light traveling great distances through optical fibers. As light travels it tends to disperse and this results in some degree of signal loss. Raman amplification is a technique that is effective in any fiber to amplify the signal light as it travels through transmission fibers, compensating for inevitable signal loss.

* First comprehensive guide to Raman amplification, a technique whose use has exploded since 1997 in order to upgrade fiber capacity;
* Accessible to professionals just entering the field of optical fiber telecommunications;
* Detailed enough for experts to use as a reference.