Soilless Culture: Theory and Practice: Theory and Practice

Raviv, Michael; Lieth, J. Heinrich

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Table of contents
  • Cover
  • Table of Contentsv
  • List of Contributorsxvii
  • Prefacexix
  • Chapter 1 Significance of Soilless Culture in Agriculture1
  • 1.1 Historical Facets of Soilless Production1
  • 1.2 Hydroponics6
  • 1.3 Soilless Production Agriculture6
  • References10
  • Chapter 2 Functions of the Root System13
  • 2.1 The Functions of the Root System13
  • 2.2 Depth of Root Penetration17
  • 2.3 Water Uptake18
  • 2.4 Response of Root Growth to Local Nutrient Concentrations22
  • 2.4.1 Nutrient Uptake22
  • 2.4.2 Root Elongation and P Uptake22
  • 2.4.3 Influence of N Form and Concentration25
  • 2.5 Interactions Between Environmental Conditions and Form of N Nutrition26
  • 2.5.1 Temperature and Root Growth26
  • 2.5.2 Role of Ca in Root Elongation30
  • 2.5.3 Light Intensity31
  • 2.5.4 pH32
  • 2.5.5 Urea32
  • 2.5.6 Mycorrhiza–Root Association33
  • 2.6 Roots as Source and Sink for Organic Compounds and Plant Hormones33
  • 2.6.1 Hormone Activity33
  • References34
  • Further Readings40
  • Chapter 3 Physical Characteristics of Soilless Media41
  • 3.1 Physical Properties of Soilless Media41
  • 3.1.1 Bulk Density42
  • 3.1.2 Particle Size Distribution42
  • 3.1.3 Porosity44
  • 3.1.4 Pore Distribution45
  • 3.2 Water Content and Water Potential in Soilless Media46
  • 3.2.1 Water Content46
  • 3.2.2 Capillarity, Water Potential and its Components50
  • 3.2.3 Water Retention Curve and Hysteresis58
  • 3.3 Water Movement in Soilless Media65
  • 3.3.1 Flow in Saturated Media65
  • 3.3.2 Flow in an Unsaturated Media67
  • 3.3.3 Richards Equation, Boundary and Initial Conditions71
  • 3.3.4 Wetting and Redistribution of Water in Soilless Media – Container Capacity73
  • 3.4 Uptake of Water by Plants in Soilless Media and Water Availability76
  • 3.4.1 Root Water Uptake76
  • 3.4.2 Modelling Root Water Uptake79
  • 3.4.3 Determining Momentary and Daily Water Uptake Rate84
  • 3.4.4 Roots Uptake Distribution Within Growing Containers88
  • 3.4.5 Water Availability vs. Atmospheric Demand90
  • 3.5 Solute Transport in Soilless Media95
  • 3.5.1 Transport Mechanisms – Diffusion, Dispersion, Convection95
  • 3.5.2 Convection–Dispersion Equation99
  • 3.5.3 Adsorption – Linear and Non-linear99
  • 3.5.4 Non-equilibrium Transport – Physical and Chemical Non-equilibria101
  • 3.5.5 Modelling Root Nutrient Uptake – Single-root and Root-system102
  • 3.6 Gas Transport in Soilless Media104
  • 3.6.1 General Concepts104
  • 3.6.2 Mechanisms of Gas Transport105
  • 3.6.3 Modelling Gas Transport in Soilless Media107
  • References108
  • Chapter 4 Irrigation in Soilless Production117
  • 4.1 Introduction117
  • 4.1.1 Water Movement in Plants119
  • 4.1.2 Water Potential119
  • 4.1.3 The Root Zone122
  • 4.1.4 Water Quality124
  • 4.2 Root Zone Moisture Dynamics126
  • 4.2.1 During an Irrigation Event126
  • 4.2.2 Between Irrigation Events126
  • 4.2.3 Prior to an Irrigation Event127
  • 4.3 Irrigation Objectives and Design Characteristics128
  • 4.3.1 Capacity128
  • 4.3.2 Uniformity128
  • 4.4 Irrigation Delivery Systems130
  • 4.4.1 Overhead Systems132
  • 4.4.2 Surface Systems134
  • 4.4.3 Subsurface137
  • 4.5 Irrigation System Control Methods141
  • 4.5.1 Occasional Irrigation141
  • 4.5.2 Pulse Irrigation141
  • 4.5.3 High Frequency Irrigation142
  • 4.5.4 Continuous Irrigation142
  • 4.6 Irrigation Decisions143
  • 4.6.1 Irrigation Frequency143
  • 4.6.2 Duration of Irrigation Event144
  • 4.7 Approaches to Making Irrigation Decisions145
  • 4.7.1 ‘Look and Feel’ Method145
  • 4.7.2 Gravimetric Method146
  • 4.7.3 Time-based Method146
  • 4.7.4 Sensor-based Methods147
  • 4.7.5 Model-based Irrigation151
  • 4.8 Future Research Directions153
  • References155
  • Chapter 5 Technical Equipment in Soilless Production Systems157
  • 5.1 Introduction157
  • 5.2 Water and Irrigation158
  • 5.2.1 Water Supply158
  • 5.2.2 Irrigation Approaches161
  • 5.2.3 Fertigation Hardware167
  • 5.3 Production Systems178
  • 5.3.1 Systems on the Ground178
  • 5.3.2 Above-ground Production Systems186
  • 5.4 Examples of Specific Soilless Crop Production Systems192
  • 5.4.1 Fruiting Vegetables192
  • 5.4.2 Single-harvest Leaf Vegetables194
  • 5.4.3 Single-harvest Sown Vegetables195
  • 5.4.4 Other Speciality Crops195
  • 5.4.5 Cut Flowers197
  • 5.4.6 Potted Plants199
  • 5.5 Discussion and Conclusion201
  • References204
  • Chapter 6 Chemical Characteristics of Soilless Media209
  • 6.1 Charge Characteristics210
  • 6.1.1 Adsorption of Nutritional Elements to Exchange Sites216
  • 6.2 Specific Adsorption and Interactions Between Cations/Anions and Substrate Solids217
  • 6.2.1 Phosphorus218
  • 6.2.2 Zinc223
  • 6.2.3 Effects of P and Zn Addition on Solution Si Concentration224
  • 6.3 Plant-induced Changes in the Rhizosphere225
  • 6.3.1 Effects on Chemical Properties of Surfaces of Substrate Solids225
  • 6.3.2 Effects on Nutrients Availability230
  • 6.3.3 Assessing the Impact of Plants: The Effect of Citric Acid Addition on P Availability233
  • 6.4 Nutrient Release from Inorganic and Organic Substrates236
  • References239
  • Chapter 7 Analytical Methods Used in Soilless Cultivation245
  • 7.1 Introduction245
  • 7.1.1 Why to Analyse Growing Media?245
  • 7.1.2 Variation248
  • 7.1.3 Interrelationships248
  • 7.2 Physical Analysis249
  • 7.2.1 Sample Preparation (Bulk Sampling and Sub-sampling)249
  • 7.2.2 Bulk Sampling Preformed Materials249
  • 7.2.3 Bulk Sampling Loose Material249
  • 7.2.4 Sub-sampling Pre-formed materials250
  • 7.2.5 Sub-sampling Loose Materials250
  • 7.3 Methods250
  • 7.3.1 Bulk Density250
  • 7.3.2 Porosity253
  • 7.3.3 Particle Size254
  • 7.3.4 Water Retention and Air Content255
  • 7.3.5 Rewetting257
  • 7.3.6 Rehydration Rate258
  • 7.3.7 Hydrophobicity (or Water Repellency)259
  • 7.3.8 Shrinkage260
  • 7.3.9 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity261
  • 7.3.10 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity262
  • 7.3.11 Oxygen Diffusion264
  • 7.3.12 Penetrability267
  • 7.3.13 Hardness, Stickiness269
  • 7.4 Chemical Analysis270
  • 7.4.1 Water-soluble Elements272
  • 7.4.2 Exchangeable, Semi- and Non-water Soluble Elements275
  • 7.4.3 The pH in Loose Media276
  • 7.4.4 Nitrogen Immobilization277
  • 7.4.5 Calcium Carbonate Content277
  • 7.5 Biological Analysis277
  • 7.5.1 Stability (and Rate of Biodegradation)278
  • 7.5.2 Potential Biodegradability279
  • 7.5.3 Heat Evolution (Dewar Test)279
  • 7.5.4 Solvita Test’279
  • 7.5.5 Respiration Rate by CO2 Production280
  • 7.5.6 Respiration Rate by O2 Consumption (The Potential Standard Method)280
  • 7.5.7 Weed Test282
  • 7.5.8 Growth Test283
  • References286
  • Chapter 8 Nutrition of Substrate-grown Plants291
  • 8.1 General291
  • 8.2 Nutrient Requirements of Substrate-grown Plants292
  • 8.2.1 General292
  • 8.2.2 Consumption Curves of Crops295
  • 8.3 Impact of N Source300
  • 8.3.1 Modification of the Rhizosphere pH and Improvement of Nutrient Availability303
  • 8.3.2 Cation-anion Balance in Plant and Growth Disorders Induced by NH4+ Toxicity307
  • 8.4 Integrated Effect of Irrigation Frequency and Nutrients Level310
  • 8.4.1 Nutrient Availability and Uptake by Plants311
  • 8.4.2 Direct and Indirect Outcomes of Irrigation Frequency on Plant Growth315
  • 8.5 Salinity Effect on Crop Production318
  • 8.5.1 General318
  • 8.5.2 Salinity-nutrients Relationships319
  • 8.5.3 Yield Quality Induced by Salinity324
  • 8.6 Composition of Nutrient Solution325
  • 8.6.1 pH Manipulation326
  • 8.6.2 Salinity Control327
  • References328
  • Chapter 9 Fertigation Management and Crops Response to Solution Recycling in Semi-closed Greenhouses341
  • 9.1 System Description343
  • 9.1.1 Essential Components343
  • 9.1.2 Processes and System Variables and Parameters344
  • 9.1.3 Substrate Considerations346
  • 9.1.4 Monitoring354
  • 9.1.5 Control355
  • 9.2 Management359
  • 9.2.1 Inorganic Ion Accumulation359
  • 9.2.2 Organic Carbon Accumulation365
  • 9.2.3 Microflora Accumulation367
  • 9.2.4 Discharge Strategies367
  • 9.2.5 Substrate and Solution Volume Per Plant369
  • 9.2.6 Effect of Substrate Type373
  • 9.2.7 Water and Nutrients Replenishment374
  • 9.2.8 Water Quality Aspects380
  • 9.2.9 Fertigation Frequency381
  • 9.2.10 pH Control: Nitrification and Protons and Carboxylates Excretion by Roots383
  • 9.2.11 Root Zone Temperature391
  • 9.2.12 Interrelationship Between Climate and Solution Recycling393
  • 9.2.13 Effect of N Sources and Concentration on Root Disease Incidence395
  • 9.3 Specific Crops Response to Recirculation397
  • 9.3.1 Vegetable Crops397
  • 9.3.2 Ornamental Crops405
  • 9.4 Modelling the Crop-Recirculation System409
  • 9.4.1 Review of Existing Models409
  • 9.4.2 Examples of Closed-loop Irrigation System Simulations410
  • 9.5 Outlook: Model-based Decision-support Tools for Semi-Closed Systems416
  • Acknowledgement417
  • Appendix418
  • References419
  • Chapter 10 Pathogen Detection and Management Strategies in Soilless Plant Growing Systems425
  • 10.1 Introduction425
  • 10.1.1 Interaction Between Growing Systems and Plant Pathogens425
  • 10.1.2 Disease-Management Strategies426
  • 10.1.3 Overview of the Chapter426
  • 10.2 Detection of Pathogens427
  • 10.2.1 Disease Potential in Closed Systems427
  • 10.2.2 Biological and Detection Thresholds428
  • 10.2.3 Method Requirements for Detection and Monitoring430
  • 10.2.4 Detection Techniques430
  • 10.2.5 Possibilities and Drawbacks of Molecular Detection Methods for Practical Application432
  • 10.2.6 Future Developments433
  • 10.3 Microbial Balance434
  • 10.3.1 Microbiological Vacuum434
  • 10.3.2 Microbial Populations in Closed Soilless Systems435
  • 10.3.3 Plant as Driving Factor of the Microflora437
  • 10.3.4 Biological Control Agents438
  • 10.3.5 Disease-suppressive Substrate440
  • 10.3.6 Conclusions441
  • 10.4 Disinfestation of the Nutrient Solution442
  • 10.4.1 Recirculation of Drainage Water442
  • 10.4.2 Volume to be Disinfected442
  • 10.4.3 Filtration444
  • 10.4.4 Heat Treatment446
  • 10.4.5 Oxidation447
  • 10.4.6 Electromagnetic Radiation449
  • 10.4.7 Active Carbon Adsorption450
  • 10.4.8 Copper Ionisation451
  • 10.4.9 Conclusions451
  • 10.5 Synthesis: Combined Strategies452
  • 10.5.1 Combining Strategies452
  • 10.5.2 Combining Biological Control Agents and Disinfestation452
  • 10.5.3 Non-pathogenic Microflora After Disinfestation452
  • 10.5.4 Addition of Beneficial Microbes to Sand Filters453
  • 10.5.5 Detection of Pathogenic and Beneficial Micro-organisms453
  • 10.5.6 Future453
  • Acknowledgements454
  • References454
  • Chapter 11 Organic Soilless Media Components459
  • 11.1 Introduction459
  • 11.2 Peat460
  • 11.2.1 Chemical Properties463
  • 11.2.2 Physical Properties464
  • 11.2.3 Nutrition in Peat466
  • 11.3 Coir468
  • 11.3.1 Production of Coir468
  • 11.3.2 Chemical Properties469
  • 11.3.3 Physical Properties472
  • 11.3.4 Plant Growth in Coir473
  • 11.4 Wood Fibre473
  • 11.4.1 Production of Wood Fibre473
  • 11.4.2 Chemical Properties474
  • 11.4.3 Physical Properties476
  • 11.4.4 Nitrogen Immobilization476
  • 11.4.5 Crop Production in Wood Fibre477
  • 11.4.6 The Composting Process477
  • 11.5 Bark479
  • 11.5.1 Chemical Properties479
  • 11.5.2 Nitrogen Immobilization481
  • 11.5.3 Physical Properties481
  • 11.5.4 Plant Growth481
  • 11.6 Sawdust482
  • 11.7 Composted Plant Waste482
  • 11.8 Other Materials486
  • 11.9 Stability of Growing Media487
  • 11.9.1 Physical and Biological Stability487
  • 11.9.2 Pathogen Survival in Compost489
  • 11.10 Disease Suppression by Organic Growing Media490
  • 11.10.1 The Phenomenon and its Description490
  • 11.10.2 Suggested Mechanisms for Suppressiveness of Compost Against Root Diseases490
  • 11.10.3 Horticultural Considerations of Use of Compost as Soilless Substrate494
  • References496
  • Chapter 12 Inorganic and Synthetic Organic Components of Soilless Culture and Potting Mixes505
  • 12.1 Introduction505
  • 12.2 Most Commonly Used Inorganic Substrates in Soilless Culture506
  • 12.2.1 Natural Unmodified Materials507
  • 12.2.2 Processed Materials511
  • 12.2.3 Mineral Wool516
  • 12.3 Most Commonly Used Synthetic Organic Media in Soilless Culture518
  • 12.3.1 Polyurethane518
  • 12.3.2 Polystyrene520
  • 12.3.3 Polyester Fleece521
  • 12.4 Substrates Mixtures „ Theory and Practice523
  • 12.4.1 Substrate Mixtures „ Physical Properties523
  • 12.4.2 Substrate Mixtures „ Chemical Properties531
  • 12.4.3 Substrate Mixtures „ Practice532
  • 12.5 Concluding Remarks536
  • Acknowledgements537
  • References537
  • Chapter 13 Growing Plants in Soilless Culture: Operational Conclusions545
  • 13.1 Evolution of Soilless Production Systems545
  • 13.1.1 Major Limitation of Soilless- vs. Soil-growing Plants546
  • 13.1.2 The Effects of Restricted Root Volume on Crop Performance and Management547
  • 13.1.3 The Effects of Restricted Root Volume on Plant Nutrition548
  • 13.1.4 Root Confinement by Rigid Barriers and Other Contributing Factors550
  • 13.1.5 Root Exposure to Ambient Conditions552
  • 13.1.6 Root Zone Uniformity552
  • 13.2 Development and Change of Soilless Production Systems553
  • 13.2.1 How New Substrates and Growing Systems Emerge (and Disappear)553
  • 13.2.2 Environmental Restrictions and the Use of Closed Systems554
  • 13.2.3 Soilless ‘Organic’ Production Systems555
  • 13.2.4 Tailoring Plants for Soilless Culture: A Challenge for Plant Breeders557
  • 13.2.5 Choosing the Appropriate Medium, Root Volume and Growing System557
  • 13.3 Management of Soilless Production Systems561
  • 13.3.1 Interrelationships Among Various Operational Parameters561
  • 13.3.2 Dynamic Nature of the Soilless Root Zone562
  • 13.3.3 Sensing and Controlling Root-zone Major Parameters: Present and Future566
  • References567
  • Index of Organism Names573
  • Subject Index579
Book details
  • Vendor Elsevier S & T
  • SKU 9780444529756
  • ISBN-13 9780080556420
  • Author Raviv, Michael; Lieth, J. Heinrich
  • Category Science
  • Subject Environmental Science

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Plant production in hydroponics and soilless culture is rapidly expanding throughout the world, raising a great interest in the scientific community. For the first time in an authoritative reference book, authors cover both theoretical and practical aspects of hydroponics (growing plants without the use of soil). This reference book covers the state-of-the-art in this area, while offering a clear view of supplying plants with nutrients other than soil. Soilless Culture provides the reader with an understanding of the properties of the various soiless media and how these properties affect plant performance in relation to basic horticultural operations, such as irrigation and fertilization. This book is ideal for agronomists, horticulturalists, greenhouse and nursery managers, extension specialists, and people involved with the production of plants.

* Comprehensive discussion of hydroponic systems, irrigation, and control measures allows readers to achieve optimal performance
* State-of-the-art book on all theoretical aspects of hydroponics and soilless culture including a thorough description of the root system, its functions and limitation posed by restricted root volume
* Critical and updated reviews of current analytical methods and how to translate their results to irrigation and fertilization practices
* Definitive chapters on recycled, no-discharge systems including salinity and nutrition management and pathogen eradication
* Up-to-date description of all important types of growing media