Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook
Regular price
47.000 KD
inc. VAT
Couldn't load pickup availability
Table of contents
- Cover
- Copyright Pageiv
- Dedicationv
- TOC$Contentsvii
- Editorsxxiii
- List of Contributorsxxv
- Prefacexxxvii
- CH$Chapter 1: Specialty Optical Fiber Market Overview1
- 1.1 Market Overview1
- 1.1.1 Production Versus Consumption1
- 1.1.2 Rapidly Growing Need to Use Fiber Optic Sensors2
- 1.1.3 Weapon System Development3
- 1.1.4 100–1000 X Improvements in Performance3
- 1.1.5 High Cost of Functionality4
- 1.1.6 Multiple Features in the Same Specialty Fibers4
- 1.2 Specialty Optical Fibers: A Few Selected Examples4
- 1.2.1 Fluoride Fiber4
- 1.2.2 Tellurite Fiber5
- 1.2.3 Bismuth-Doped Fiber5
- 1.2.4 Polarizing Fiber6
- 1.2.5 Photonic Crystal Fiber—Holey Fibers7
- 1.2.6 Dispersion-Compensating Fiber8
- 1.2.7 High-Index Fiber11
- 1.2.8 Polarization-Maintaining Fiber11
- 1.2.9 Photosensitive Fiber13
- 1.2.10 Erbium-Doped Fiber13
- 1.3 Conclusions17
- CH$Chapter 2: Light-Guiding Fundamentals and Fiber Design19
- 2.1 Introduction19
- 2.2 Physical Structure of a Telecommunications Optical Fiber20
- 2.3 Linear Lightwave Propagation in an Optical Fiber20
- 2.3.1 Electromagnetic Preliminaries20
- 2.3.2 Intuition from the Slab Waveguide22
- 2.3.3 Optical Fiber: A Cylindrical Waveguide24
- 2.3.4 The Linearly Polarized Mode Set LPlm25
- 2.3.5 Finite Element Analysis for Waveguide Calculations27
- 2.4 Working Definitions of Cutoff Wavelength29
- 2.4.1 Introduction29
- 2.4.2 Theoretical Cutoff Wavelength29
- 2.4.3 Effective Cutoff Wavelengths29
- 2.5 Impact of Profile Design on Macrobending Losses32
- 2.5.1 The Depressed Cladding Fiber Design32
- 2.5.2 Phenomenology of Macrobending Loss34
- 2.6 Fiber Attenuation Loss36
- 2.7 Origins of Chromatic Dispersion38
- 2.7.1 Introduction38
- 2.7.2 Material Dispersion38
- 2.7.3 Waveguide Dispersion42
- 2.8 Polarization Mode Dispersion45
- 2.8.1 Overview45
- 2.8.2 Background46
- 2.8.3 Modeling and Simulation48
- 2.8.4 Control of PMD in Fiber Manufacturing49
- 2.8.5 Measurement of PMD51
- 2.8.6 Fiber-to-Cable-to-Field PMD Mapping53
- 2.9 Microbending Loss55
- 2.9.1 Microbending55
- 2.10 Fiber Nonlinearities60
- 2.10.1 Overview60
- 2.10.2 Background61
- References65
- CH$Chapter 3: Overview of Materials and Fabrication Technologies69
- 3.1 Double-Crucible Technique69
- 3.2 Vapor-Deposition Techniques70
- 3.3 Outside Vapor Deposition71
- 3.4 Vertical Axial Deposition73
- 3.5 Direct Nanoparticle Deposition75
- 3.6 Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition77
- 3.6.1 Chemical Equilibria: Dopant Incorporation78
- 3.6.2 Purification from Hydroxyl Contamination80
- 3.6.3 Thermophoresis80
- 3.7 Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition82
- 3.8 Sol-Gel Processes83
- 3.8.1 Alkoxide Sol-Gel Processing83
- 3.8.2 Colloidal Sol-Gel Processing84
- 3.9 Sol-Gel Microstructure Fiber Fabrication86
- 3.10 Fiber Drawing88
- Acknowledgments91
- References91
- CH$Chapter 4: Optical Fiber Coatings95
- 4.1 Introduction95
- 4.2 Early History of Coatings for Optical Fiber96
- 4.3 Evolution of Optical Fibers and Protective Coatings97
- 4.3.1 Coating Contributions to Microbending Minimization97
- 4.3.2 Glass Fiber Fracture Mechanics and Coating Contributions to Fiber Strength Retention99
- 4.3.3 Durability of Fiber Optic Coatings100
- 4.4 Cabling of Optical Fibers102
- 4.5 Specialty Coatings103
- 4.6 Basics of Optical Fiber Chemistry103
- 4.6.1 Oligomers103
- 4.6.2 Monomers105
- 4.6.3 Photoinitiators105
- 4.6.4 Adhesion Promoters105
- 4.6.5 Other Additives106
- 4.7 Application of Coatings on the Draw Tower108
- 4.7.1 Coating Cure Speed Measurement Techniques110
- 4.7.2 Cured Properties of Coatings on Fiber113
- 4.7.3 Test Methods for UV-Curable Liquids and UV-Cured Films115
- 4.7.4 Coating Adhesion117
- 4.8 Summary117
- Acknowledgments118
- References118
- CH$Chapter 5: Single-Mode Fibers for Communications123
- 5.1 Introduction123
- 5.2 System Impairments Influencing Fiber Design124
- 5.2.1 Limitations from Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio124
- 5.2.2 Limitations from Intersymbol Interference125
- 5.2.3 Limitations from Nonlinearity126
- 5.2.4 Limitations from Amplifier Technology127
- 5.2.5 Can Fiber Design Be Used to Optimize a Transmission System?127
- 5.3 Overview of ITU Standards Fiber Categories129
- 5.4 Optical Fibers for Reduced Attenuation132
- 5.4.1 Pure Silica Core Fiber133
- 5.4.2 Zero Water Peak Fiber133
- 5.5 Optical Fiber Design Principles for Wideband and High Bit Rate Transmission141
- 5.5.1 Precise Dispersion Compensation142
- 5.5.2 Dispersion Compensation Fiber Technology142
- 5.5.3 Full-Band Dispersion Compensation143
- 5.5.4 Requirement for Low Residual Dispersion144
- 5.5.5 Factors Affecting Nonlinearity145
- 5.5.6 Impairments Affecting Raman Amplification147
- 5.5.7 Systems Implications of Tx Fiber PMD147
- 5.5.8 Summary of Design Principles148
- 5.6 Design of Nonzero Dispersion Fibers148
- 5.6.1 Fiber Transmission Parameter Tradeoffs149
- 5.6.2 Realizability, Manufacturability, and Scalability150
- 5.6.3 Low-Dispersion NZDFs152
- 5.6.4 Medium-Dispersion NZDFs155
- 5.7 A New Paradigm in Transmission Line Design158
- References159
- CH$Chapter 6: Specialty Single-Mode Fibers165
- 6.1 Introduction165
- 6.2 Macrohole Fiber166
- 6.2.1 Microfluidic Devices168
- 6.3 Fibers with Internal Electrodes169
- 6.3.1 Electrodes170
- 6.3.2 Applications173
- 6.4 Multicore Fibers and Components175
- 6.4.1 Coupled Cores176
- 6.4.2 Uncoupled Cores180
- 6.4.3 Manufacturing Multicore Fibers182
- 6.5 Fibers for High-Temperature–Resistant Gratings185
- 6.6 Summary188
- References188
- CH$Chapter 7: Rare Earth-Doped Fibers195
- 7.1 Introduction195
- 7.2 Motivation196
- 7.3 Host Glasses for Rare Earth Ions198
- 7.4 Fabrication of Rare Earth-Doped Fibers200
- 7.4.1 Overview of Optical Fiber Fabrication200
- 7.4.2 Incorporation of Rare Earth Elements202
- 7.4.3 Summary of Rare Earth-Doped Fabrication Techniques210
- 7.4.3 Summary of Rare Earth-Doped Fabrication Techniques210
- 7.5 Erbium-Doped Fiber210
- 7.5 Erbium-Doped Fiber210
- 7.5.1 Principles of Operation211
- 7.5.1 Principles of Operation211
- 7.5.2 Fiber Design Issues213
- 7.5.2 Fiber Design Issues213
- 7.5.3 Fiber Composition Issues216
- 7.5.3 Fiber Composition Issues216
- 7.5.4 Short Wavelength Amplifiers219
- 7.5.4 Short Wavelength Amplifiers219
- 7.6 The Co-Doped Er/Yb System222
- 7.6 The Co-Doped Er/Yb System222
- 7.7 Double-Clad Fiber223
- 7.7 Double-Clad Fiber223
- 7.7.1 Limitations of Fiber Lasers226
- 7.7.1 Limitations of Fiber Lasers226
- 7.7.2 Methods to Improve Performance227
- 7.7.2 Methods to Improve Performance227
- 7.8 Conclusion237
- 7.8 Conclusion237
- References237
- References237
- CH$Chapter 8: Polarization Maintaining Fibers243
- CH$Chapter 8: Polarization Maintaining Fibers243
- 8.1 What is a Polarization Maintaining Fiber?243
- 8.1 What is a Polarization Maintaining Fiber?243
- 8.2 Why Use PM Fibers?—Applications244
- 8.2 Why Use PM Fibers?—Applications244
- 8.2.1 Interferometry244
- 8.2.1 Interferometry244
- 8.2.2 The Fiber Optic Gyroscope245
- 8.2.2 The Fiber Optic Gyroscope245
- 8.2.3 Coherent Communications245
- 8.2.3 Coherent Communications245
- 8.2.4 Integrated Optics246
- 8.2.4 Integrated Optics246
- 8.2.5 Laser Doppler Anemometry and Velocimetry247
- 8.2.5 Laser Doppler Anemometry and Velocimetry247
- 8.2.6 EDFA Pump Combiners, Reflection-Suppression Schemes, Current Sensing, and Optical Coherence To249
- 8.2.6 EDFA Pump Combiners, Reflection-Suppression Schemes, Current Sensing, and Optical Coherence To249
- 8.3 How Do PM Fibers Work?249
- 8.3 How Do PM Fibers Work?249
- 8.4 PM Fiber Types: Stress and Form Birefringent250
- 8.4 PM Fiber Types: Stress and Form Birefringent250
- 8.4.1 Stress-Birefringent Fibers: Bowtie, PANDA, and Elliptical Jacket250
- 8.4.1 Stress-Birefringent Fibers: Bowtie, PANDA, and Elliptical Jacket250
- 8.4.2 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber253
- 8.4.2 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber253
- 8.4.3 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers254
- 8.4.3 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers254
- 8.4.4 Polarizing Fiber254
- 8.4.4 Polarizing Fiber254
- 8.5 PM Fiber Fabrication Methods256
- 8.5 PM Fiber Fabrication Methods256
- 8.5.1 Bowtie Fibers256
- 8.5.1 Bowtie Fibers256
- 8.5.2 PANDA Fiber258
- 8.5.2 PANDA Fiber258
- 8.5.3 Elliptical Jacket Fiber258
- 8.5.3 Elliptical Jacket Fiber258
- 8.5.4 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber260
- 8.5.4 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber260
- 8.5.5 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers261
- 8.5.5 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers261
- 8.6 Key Performance Parameters262
- 8.6 Key Performance Parameters262
- 8.6.1 Attenuation (alpha)262
- 8.6.1 Attenuation (alpha)262
- 8.6.2 Numerical Aperture (NA)263
- 8.6.2 Numerical Aperture (NA)263
- 8.6.3 Is There a Connection Between Polarization Maintenance and Attenuation?264
- 8.6.3 Is There a Connection Between Polarization Maintenance and Attenuation?264
- 8.6.4 Cutoff Wavelength (lamdac)264
- 8.6.4 Cutoff Wavelength (lamdac)264
- 8.6.5 Mode-Field Diameter (MFD)265
- 8.6.5 Mode-Field Diameter (MFD)265
- 8.6.6 Beat Length (Lp)267
- 8.6.6 Beat Length (Lp)267
- 8.6.7 Extinction Ratio (ER)269
- 8.6.7 Extinction Ratio (ER)269
- 8.6.8 H-Parameter270
- 8.6.8 H-Parameter270
- 8.6.9 Effect of Test Conditions and Environment on Polarization Maintaining Performance270
- 8.6.9 Effect of Test Conditions and Environment on Polarization Maintaining Performance270
- 8.7 Mechanical and Lifetime Properties273
- 8.7 Mechanical and Lifetime Properties273
- 8.7.1 Strength Paradox I: Fragile Preforms Make Exceptionally Strong Fibers273
- 8.7.1 Strength Paradox I: Fragile Preforms Make Exceptionally Strong Fibers273
- 8.7.2 Strength Paradox II: Thin Fibers Can Be Stronger Than Thicker Ones275
- 8.7.2 Strength Paradox II: Thin Fibers Can Be Stronger Than Thicker Ones275
- References276
- References276
- CH$Chapter 9: Photosensitive Fibers279
- CH$Chapter 9: Photosensitive Fibers279
- 9.1 Introduction279
- 9.1 Introduction279
- 9.2 Design and Fabrication281
- 9.2 Design and Fabrication281
- 9.3 Standard Numerical Aperture Fibers282
- 9.3 Standard Numerical Aperture Fibers282
- 9.3.1 Standard Single-Mode Fibers283
- 9.3.1 Standard Single-Mode Fibers283
- 9.3.2 Boron-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers283
- 9.3.2 Boron-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers283
- 9.3.3 Antimony-Doped Fibers286
- 9.3.3 Antimony-Doped Fibers286
- 9.3.4 Tin-Doped Fibers287
- 9.3.4 Tin-Doped Fibers287
- 9.4 High Numerical Aperture Fibers287
- 9.4 High Numerical Aperture Fibers287
- 9.4.1 Heavily Ge-Doped Silica Optical Fibers288
- 9.4.1 Heavily Ge-Doped Silica Optical Fibers288
- 9.4.2 Tin-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers289
- 9.4.2 Tin-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers289
- 9.4.3 Indium-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers290
- 9.4.3 Indium-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers290
- 9.5 Cladding Mode Suppression291
- 9.5 Cladding Mode Suppression291
- 9.6 Rare Earth-Doped Photosensitive Fibers293
- 9.6 Rare Earth-Doped Photosensitive Fibers293
- 9.6.1 Germano-Alumino-Silicate Glass Host Core294
- 9.6.1 Germano-Alumino-Silicate Glass Host Core294
- 9.6.2 Confined Core297
- 9.6.2 Confined Core297
- 9.6.3 Photosensitive-Clad300
- 9.6.3 Photosensitive-Clad300
- 9.6.4 Confined Core and Photosensitive Clad300
- 9.6.4 Confined Core and Photosensitive Clad300
- 9.6.5 Antimony-Doped Alumino-Silicate301
- 9.6.5 Antimony-Doped Alumino-Silicate301
- 9.7 Polarization Maintaining302
- 9.7 Polarization Maintaining302
- 9.8 Other Photosensitive Fiber Types303
- 9.8 Other Photosensitive Fiber Types303
- 9.8.1 Polymer Optical Fibers304
- 9.8.1 Polymer Optical Fibers304
- 9.8.2 Fluoride Glass308
- 9.8.2 Fluoride Glass308
- 9.8.3 Heavily P-Doped Silica Fibers308
- 9.8.3 Heavily P-Doped Silica Fibers308
- 9.9 Conclusions309
- 9.9 Conclusions309
- Acknowledgments310
- Acknowledgments310
- References310
- References310
- CH$Chapter 10: Hollow-Core Fibers315
- CH$Chapter 10: Hollow-Core Fibers315
- 10.1 Introduction315
- 10.1 Introduction315
- 10.1.1 Wave-Guiding by Total Internal Reflection316
- 10.1.1 Wave-Guiding by Total Internal Reflection316
- 10.1.2 Wave-Guiding by Reflection Off a Conducting Boundary317
- 10.1.2 Wave-Guiding by Reflection Off a Conducting Boundary317
- 10.1.3 Wave-Guiding by Photonic Band-Gaps318
- 10.1.3 Wave-Guiding by Photonic Band-Gaps318
- 10.2 Light Transmission in Hollow-Core Fiber320
- 10.2 Light Transmission in Hollow-Core Fiber320
- 10.2.1 Hollow Metal Waveguides323
- 10.2.1 Hollow Metal Waveguides323
- 10.2.2 Wave-Guiding in Bragg and OmniGuide Fibers324
- 10.2.2 Wave-Guiding in Bragg and OmniGuide Fibers324
- 10.2.3 Loss Mechanisms in OmniGuide Fibers327
- 10.2.3 Loss Mechanisms in OmniGuide Fibers327
- 10.2.4 Wave-Guiding in 2D Photonic-Crystal Fiber341
- 10.2.4 Wave-Guiding in 2D Photonic-Crystal Fiber341
- 10.3 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers347
- 10.3 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers347
- 10.3.1 Hollow-Core Fibers for Medical Applications347
- 10.3.1 Hollow-Core Fibers for Medical Applications347
- 10.3.2 Potential Telecom Applications349
- 10.3.2 Potential Telecom Applications349
- 10.3.3 Hollow-Core Fibers as Gas Cells350
- 10.3.3 Hollow-Core Fibers as Gas Cells350
- 10.3.4 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers for Remote Sensing351
- 10.3.4 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers for Remote Sensing351
- 10.3.5 Industrial Applications351
- 10.3.5 Industrial Applications351
- 10.4 Hollow-Core Fiber Manufacturing352
- 10.4 Hollow-Core Fiber Manufacturing352
- 10.4.1 OmniGuide Fiber Manufacturing352
- 10.4.1 OmniGuide Fiber Manufacturing352
- 10.4.2 Techniques Used in the Manufacture of Other Hollow-Core Fibers355
- 10.4.2 Techniques Used in the Manufacture of Other Hollow-Core Fibers355
- 10.5 Conclusions357
- 10.5 Conclusions357
- References357
- References357
- CH$Chapter 11: Silica Nanofibers and Subwavelength-Diameter Fibers361
- CH$Chapter 11: Silica Nanofibers and Subwavelength-Diameter Fibers361
- 11.1 Nanofiber at a Glance361
- 11.1 Nanofiber at a Glance361
- 11.2 Introduction361
- 11.2 Introduction361
- 11.3 Modeling of Single-Mode Wave-Guiding Properties of Silica Nanofibers362
- 11.3 Modeling of Single-Mode Wave-Guiding Properties of Silica Nanofibers362
- 11.3.1 Basic Model363
- 11.3.1 Basic Model363
- 11.3.2 Power Distribution: Fraction of Power Inside the Core and Effective Diameter367
- 11.3.2 Power Distribution: Fraction of Power Inside the Core and Effective Diameter367
- 11.3.3 Group Velocity and Waveguide Dispersion372
- 11.3.3 Group Velocity and Waveguide Dispersion372
- 11.4 Fabrication and Microscopic Characterization of Silica Nanofibers374
- 11.4 Fabrication and Microscopic Characterization of Silica Nanofibers374
- 11.4.1 Two-Step Taper Drawing of Silica Nanofibers375
- 11.4.1 Two-Step Taper Drawing of Silica Nanofibers375
- 11.4.2 Electron Microscope Study of Silica Nanofibers377
- 11.4.2 Electron Microscope Study of Silica Nanofibers377
- 11.5 Properties of Silica Nanofibers381
- 11.5 Properties of Silica Nanofibers381
- 11.5.1 Micromanipulation and Mechanical Properties381
- 11.5.1 Micromanipulation and Mechanical Properties381
- 11.5.2 Wave-Guiding and Optical Loss385
- 11.5.2 Wave-Guiding and Optical Loss385
- 11.6 Applications and Potential Uses of Silica Nanofibers388
- 11.6 Applications and Potential Uses of Silica Nanofibers388
- 11.6.1 Microscale and Nanoscale Photonic Components389
- 11.6.1 Microscale and Nanoscale Photonic Components389
- 11.6.2 Nanofiber Optical Sensors394
- 11.6.2 Nanofiber Optical Sensors394
- 11.6.3 Additional Applications396
- 11.6.3 Additional Applications396
- References396
- References396
- CH$Chapter 12: Chiral Fibers401
- CH$Chapter 12: Chiral Fibers401
- 12.1 Introduction401
- 12.1 Introduction401
- 12.2 Three Types of Chiral Gratings402
- 12.2 Three Types of Chiral Gratings402
- 12.3 Chiral Short-Period Grating: In-Fiber Analog of CLC406
- 12.3 Chiral Short-Period Grating: In-Fiber Analog of CLC406
- 12.3.1 Fabrication Challenges406
- 12.3.1 Fabrication Challenges406
- 12.3.2 Analogy to 1D Chiral Planar Structure406
- 12.3.2 Analogy to 1D Chiral Planar Structure406
- 12.3.3 Comparison of 1D Chiral to 1D Isotropic Layered Structures407
- 12.3.3 Comparison of 1D Chiral to 1D Isotropic Layered Structures407
- 12.3.4 Microwave Experiments411
- 12.3.4 Microwave Experiments411
- 12.3.5 Optical Measurements414
- 12.3.5 Optical Measurements414
- 12.4 Chiral Intermediate-Period Grating415
- 12.4 Chiral Intermediate-Period Grating415
- 12.4.1 Symmetry of CIPG Structures415
- 12.4.1 Symmetry of CIPG Structures415
- 12.4.2 Microwave Experiments415
- 12.4.2 Microwave Experiments415
- 12.4.3 Optical Measurements416
- 12.4.3 Optical Measurements416
- 12.4.4 Synchronization of Optical Polarization Conversion and Scattering416
- 12.4.4 Synchronization of Optical Polarization Conversion and Scattering416
- 12.5 Chiral Long-Period Grating423
- 12.5 Chiral Long-Period Grating423
- 12.5.1 Optical Measurements423
- 12.5.1 Optical Measurements423
- 12.6 Conclusion426
- 12.6 Conclusion426
- Acknowledgments426
- Acknowledgments426
- References426
- References426
- CH$Chapter 13: Mid-IR and Infrared Fibers429
- CH$Chapter 13: Mid-IR and Infrared Fibers429
- 13.1 Introduction429
- 13.1 Introduction429
- 13.2 Halide and Heavy Metal Oxide Glass Fiber Optics433
- 13.2 Halide and Heavy Metal Oxide Glass Fiber Optics433
- 13.2.1 Fluoride Glass Fibers434
- 13.2.1 Fluoride Glass Fibers434
- 13.2.2 Germanate Glass Fibers436
- 13.2.2 Germanate Glass Fibers436
- 13.2.3 Chalcogenide Glass Fibers437
- 13.2.3 Chalcogenide Glass Fibers437
- 13.3 Crystalline Fibers440
- 13.3 Crystalline Fibers440
- 13.4 Polycrystalline (PC) Fibers441
- 13.4 Polycrystalline (PC) Fibers441
- 13.5 Single-Crystal (SC) Fibers443
- 13.5 Single-Crystal (SC) Fibers443
- 13.6 Hollow-Core Waveguides445
- 13.6 Hollow-Core Waveguides445
- 13.6.1 Hollow Metal and Plastic Waveguides446
- 13.6.1 Hollow Metal and Plastic Waveguides446
- 13.6.2 Hollow Glass Waveguides446
- 13.6.2 Hollow Glass Waveguides446
- 13.7 Summary450
- 13.7 Summary450
- References450
- References450
- CH$Chapter 14: Hermetic Optical Fibers: Carbon-Coated Fibers453
- CH$Chapter 14: Hermetic Optical Fibers: Carbon-Coated Fibers453
- 14.1 Introduction453
- 14.1 Introduction453
- 14.2 History455
- 14.2 History455
- 14.3 Deposition of Carbon Coatings on Fibers460
- 14.3 Deposition of Carbon Coatings on Fibers460
- 14.4 Fatigue Properties of Carbon-Coated Fibers462
- 14.4 Fatigue Properties of Carbon-Coated Fibers462
- 14.5 Hydrogen Losses in Optical Fibers466
- 14.5 Hydrogen Losses in Optical Fibers466
- 14.5.1 Hydrogen-Induced Losses in Nonhermetic Fibers466
- 14.5.1 Hydrogen-Induced Losses in Nonhermetic Fibers466
- 14.5.2 Hydrogen Losses in Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers468
- 14.5.2 Hydrogen Losses in Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers468
- 14.5.3 Testing of Hermetic Fibers in Hydrogen469
- 14.5.3 Testing of Hermetic Fibers in Hydrogen469
- 14.5.4 Diffusion of Hydrogen in Hermetic Fibers472
- 14.5.4 Diffusion of Hydrogen in Hermetic Fibers472
- 14.5.5 Effects of Glass Composition on Hermetic Fiber Behavior477
- 14.5.5 Effects of Glass Composition on Hermetic Fiber Behavior477
- 14.6 Use and Handling of Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers479
- 14.6 Use and Handling of Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers479
- 14.6.1 Fiber Strength479
- 14.6.1 Fiber Strength479
- 14.6.2 Fiber Handling479
- 14.6.2 Fiber Handling479
- 14.6.3 Fiber Stripping, Cleaving, and Connectorization480
- 14.6.3 Fiber Stripping, Cleaving, and Connectorization480
- 14.6.4 Fusion Splicing480
- 14.6.4 Fusion Splicing480
- 14.6.5 Fiber Color481
- 14.6.5 Fiber Color481
- 14.7 Specifying Carbon-Coated Fibers481
- 14.7 Specifying Carbon-Coated Fibers481
- 14.8 Applications for Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers485
- 14.8 Applications for Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers485
- 14.8.1 Fibers in Underwater Cables485
- 14.8.1 Fibers in Underwater Cables485
- 14.8.2 Amplifier Fibers486
- 14.8.2 Amplifier Fibers486
- 14.8.3 Avionics486
- 14.8.3 Avionics486
- 14.8.4 Geophysical Sensors486
- 14.8.4 Geophysical Sensors486
- 14.9 Conclusion487
- 14.9 Conclusion487
- References488
- References488
- CH$Chapter 15: Metal-Coated Fibers491
- CH$Chapter 15: Metal-Coated Fibers491
- 15.1 Introduction491
- 15.1 Introduction491
- 15.2 Freezing Technique493
- 15.2 Freezing Technique493
- 15.3 Strength and Reliability500
- 15.3 Strength and Reliability500
- 15.4 Degradation at High Temperature505
- 15.4 Degradation at High Temperature505
- 15.5 Optical Properties of Metal-Coated Fibers506
- 15.5 Optical Properties of Metal-Coated Fibers506
- 15.6 Summary510
- 15.6 Summary510
- References510
- References510
- CH$Chapter 16: Elliptical Core and D-Shape Fibers513
- CH$Chapter 16: Elliptical Core and D-Shape Fibers513
- 16.1 Overview513
- 16.1 Overview513
- 16.1.1 Elliptical Core Optical Fiber513
- 16.1.1 Elliptical Core Optical Fiber513
- 16.1.2 D-Shape Elliptical Core Fiber and Variations with Assessable Regions514
- 16.1.2 D-Shape Elliptical Core Fiber and Variations with Assessable Regions514
- 16.2 Manufacturing of Elliptical Core and D-Shape Fibers515
- 16.2 Manufacturing of Elliptical Core and D-Shape Fibers515
- 16.3 Elliptical Core Fibers: Characteristics and Properties517
- 16.3 Elliptical Core Fibers: Characteristics and Properties517
- 16.3.1 Birefringence519
- 16.3.1 Birefringence519
- 16.3.2 Polarization Holding520
- 16.3.2 Polarization Holding520
- 16.3.3 Ellipticity and Higher Order Modes520
- 16.3.3 Ellipticity and Higher Order Modes520
- 16.4 D-Shape Fibers: Characteristics and Properties521
- 16.4 D-Shape Fibers: Characteristics and Properties521
- 16.4.1 Accessing the Optical Fields: Fiber Etching522
- 16.4.1 Accessing the Optical Fields: Fiber Etching522
- 16.4.2 Wet Etching of Silicon Dioxide–Based Cladding and Germanosilicate Core523
- 16.4.2 Wet Etching of Silicon Dioxide–Based Cladding and Germanosilicate Core523
- 16.4.3 Standard Etching (Etch to Reach Evanescent Field)524
- 16.4.3 Standard Etching (Etch to Reach Evanescent Field)524
- 16.4.4 Exposing the Core526
- 16.4.4 Exposing the Core526
- 16.4.5 Partial and Full Core Removal528
- 16.4.5 Partial and Full Core Removal528
- 16.5 D-Shape Fiber Components528
- 16.5 D-Shape Fiber Components528
- 16.5.1 Couplers529
- 16.5.1 Couplers529
- 16.5.2 Loop Mirrors530
- 16.5.2 Loop Mirrors530
- 16.5.3 Polarizers530
- 16.5.3 Polarizers530
- 16.5.4 Butt Coupling to Active Devices531
- 16.5.4 Butt Coupling to Active Devices531
- 16.5.5 Coupling to Integrated Optics534
- 16.5.5 Coupling to Integrated Optics534
- 16.6 Splicing535
- 16.6 Splicing535
- 16.6.1 D-Shape to D-Shape Fiber Splicing535
- 16.6.1 D-Shape to D-Shape Fiber Splicing535
- 16.6.2 D-Shape to Circular Clad Fiber Splicing535
- 16.6.2 D-Shape to Circular Clad Fiber Splicing535
- 16.7 In-Fiber Devices536
- 16.7 In-Fiber Devices536
- 16.7.1 Electro-Optic Overlay Intensity Modulators538
- 16.7.1 Electro-Optic Overlay Intensity Modulators538
- 16.7.2 Replaced Cladding Phase Modulators539
- 16.7.2 Replaced Cladding Phase Modulators539
- 16.7.3 Partial and Full Core-Replaced Devices541
- 16.7.3 Partial and Full Core-Replaced Devices541
- 16.7.4 Fiber Bragg Grating Devices543
- 16.7.4 Fiber Bragg Grating Devices543
- 16.7.5 Variable Attenuators545
- 16.7.5 Variable Attenuators545
- 16.7.6 Optical Absorption Monitoring547
- 16.7.6 Optical Absorption Monitoring547
- 16.7.7 Intrinsic Fiber Sensors548
- 16.7.7 Intrinsic Fiber Sensors548
- 16.7.8 D-Shape Fiber Opto-Electronic Devices552
- 16.7.8 D-Shape Fiber Opto-Electronic Devices552
- 16.8 Rare Earth-Doped Elliptical Core Fiber553
- 16.8 Rare Earth-Doped Elliptical Core Fiber553
- References554
- References554
- CH$Chapter 17: Multimode, Large-Core, and Plastic Clad (PCS) Fibers563
- CH$Chapter 17: Multimode, Large-Core, and Plastic Clad (PCS) Fibers563
- 17.1 Introduction563
- 17.1 Introduction563
- 17.2 Large-Core Silica/Silica (All-Silica) Fiber565
- 17.2 Large-Core Silica/Silica (All-Silica) Fiber565
- 17.3 High NA and Low NA Silica/Silica Fibers568
- 17.3 High NA and Low NA Silica/Silica Fibers568
- 17.4 Plastic and Hard Polymer Clad Silica Fibers572
- 17.4 Plastic and Hard Polymer Clad Silica Fibers572
- 17.4.1 Plastic Clad Silica Fibers572
- 17.4.1 Plastic Clad Silica Fibers572
- 17.4.2 Hard Polymer Clad Silica572
- 17.4.2 Hard Polymer Clad Silica572
- 17.5 Silica Fibers with Nano-Porous Cladding/Coating574
- 17.5 Silica Fibers with Nano-Porous Cladding/Coating574
- 17.6 Unlimited Application Potential575
- 17.6 Unlimited Application Potential575
- References577
- References577
- CH$Chapter 18: Tapered Fibers and Specialty Fiber Microcomponents579
- CH$Chapter 18: Tapered Fibers and Specialty Fiber Microcomponents579
- 18.1 Introduction579
- 18.1 Introduction579
- 18.2 Tapers582
- 18.2 Tapers582
- 18.2.1 Design of a Fiber Taper583
- 18.2.1 Design of a Fiber Taper583
- 18.3 Lenses587
- 18.3 Lenses587
- 18.4 Diffusers590
- 18.4 Diffusers590
- 18.5 Side-Fire and Angled Ends592
- 18.5 Side-Fire and Angled Ends592
- 18.6 Optical Detection Windows for Microfluidic Flow Cells593
- 18.6 Optical Detection Windows for Microfluidic Flow Cells593
- Acknowledgments597
- Acknowledgments597
- References597
- References597
- CH$Chapter 19: Liquid-Core Optical Fibers599
- CH$Chapter 19: Liquid-Core Optical Fibers599
- 19.1 Introduction599
- 19.1 Introduction599
- 19.2 Propagation of Light in Liquid-Core Fibers: Modal Features, Dispersion, and Polarization Effect600
- 19.2 Propagation of Light in Liquid-Core Fibers: Modal Features, Dispersion, and Polarization Effect600
- 19.3 Fabrication and Characterization Methods602
- 19.3 Fabrication and Characterization Methods602
- 19.4 Applications605
- 19.4 Applications605
- 19.4.1 Waveguides for Special Spectral Regions and Optical Chemical Analysis605
- 19.4.1 Waveguides for Special Spectral Regions and Optical Chemical Analysis605
- 19.4.2 Fiber Sensors607
- 19.4.2 Fiber Sensors607
- 19.4.3 Nonlinear Optical Effects609
- 19.4.3 Nonlinear Optical Effects609
- 19.4.4 Medical Applications610
- 19.4.4 Medical Applications610
- 19.4.5 Special Waveguide Structures and Devices with Liquid Cores612
- 19.4.5 Special Waveguide Structures and Devices with Liquid Cores612
- 19.5 Conclusions613
- 19.5 Conclusions613
- References614
- References614
- CH$Chapter 20: Polymer Optical Fibers617
- CH$Chapter 20: Polymer Optical Fibers617
- 20.1 Introduction617
- 20.1 Introduction617
- 20.2 POF Basics617
- 20.2 POF Basics617
- 20.2.1 Materials for POF618
- 20.2.1 Materials for POF618
- 20.2.2 Light Propagation Effects in POF620
- 20.2.2 Light Propagation Effects in POF620
- 20.2.3 Bandwidth of POF622
- 20.2.3 Bandwidth of POF622
- 20.3 Types of POF622
- 20.3 Types of POF622
- 20.4 POF Standards632
- 20.4 POF Standards632
- 20.5 POF Transmission Systems633
- 20.5 POF Transmission Systems633
- 20.5.1 SI-PMMA POF633
- 20.5.1 SI-PMMA POF633
- 20.5.2 PMMA-GI POF634
- 20.5.2 PMMA-GI POF634
- 20.5.3 PF-GI POF634
- 20.5.3 PF-GI POF634
- 20.6 Applications of POF636
- 20.6 Applications of POF636
- 20.6.1 POF in Automobile Networks636
- 20.6.1 POF in Automobile Networks636
- 20.6.2 POF Sensors638
- 20.6.2 POF Sensors638
- 20.6.3 POF in Home Networks640
- 20.6.3 POF in Home Networks640
- 20.7 POF Fabrication Methods641
- 20.7 POF Fabrication Methods641
- 20.7.1 SI POF: Preform and Extrusion Method642
- 20.7.1 SI POF: Preform and Extrusion Method642
- 20.7.2 Production of Graded-Index Profiles644
- 20.7.2 Production of Graded-Index Profiles644
- 20.7.3 Interfacial Gel Polymerization Technique644
- 20.7.3 Interfacial Gel Polymerization Technique644
- 20.7.4 GI POF Extrusion647
- 20.7.4 GI POF Extrusion647
- References647
- References647
- CH$Chapter 21: Sapphire Optical Fibers651
- CH$Chapter 21: Sapphire Optical Fibers651
- 21.1 The Growth of Sapphire Fiber652
- 21.1 The Growth of Sapphire Fiber652
- 21.2 Optical and Mechanical Characteristics of Single-Crystal Sapphire Fiber656
- 21.2 Optical and Mechanical Characteristics of Single-Crystal Sapphire Fiber656
- 21.3 Cladding and Coating of Sapphire Fibers660
- 21.3 Cladding and Coating of Sapphire Fibers660
- 21.4 Applications of Sapphire Fibers663
- 21.4 Applications of Sapphire Fibers663
- 21.4.1 Optical Fiber Sensors663
- 21.4.1 Optical Fiber Sensors663
- 21.4.2 Medical Applications667
- 21.4.2 Medical Applications667
- 21.5 Appendix: Material Properties of Al2O3668
- 21.5 Appendix: Material Properties of Al2O3668
- References669
- References669
- CH$Chapter 22: Optical Fibers for Industrial Laser Applications671
- CH$Chapter 22: Optical Fibers for Industrial Laser Applications671
- 22.1 Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers: An Introduction671
- 22.1 Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers: An Introduction671
- 22.2 Cladding Pumped Fibers672
- 22.2 Cladding Pumped Fibers672
- 22.3 Large-Mode-Area Ytterbium-Doped Fibers: The Power Revolution673
- 22.3 Large-Mode-Area Ytterbium-Doped Fibers: The Power Revolution673
- 22.4 Polarization-Maintaining LMA DCF679
- 22.4 Polarization-Maintaining LMA DCF679
- 22.5 Fiber Lasers: State of the Art686
- 22.5 Fiber Lasers: State of the Art686
- 22.6 Large-Mode-Area Eye-Safe Fibers688
- 22.6 Large-Mode-Area Eye-Safe Fibers688
- 22.7 Conclusions695
- 22.7 Conclusions695
- References696
- References696
- CH$Chapter 23: Optical Fibers for Biomedical Applications699
- CH$Chapter 23: Optical Fibers for Biomedical Applications699
- 23.1 Introduction699
- 23.1 Introduction699
- 23.2 Medical Laser Arms700
- 23.2 Medical Laser Arms700
- 23.3 Transendoscopic Surgical Application703
- 23.3 Transendoscopic Surgical Application703
- 23.3.1 Clinical Tests705
- 23.3.1 Clinical Tests705
- 23.4 Absorption Spectroscopy708
- 23.4 Absorption Spectroscopy708
- 23.4.1 Introduction708
- 23.4.1 Introduction708
- 23.4.2 Medical Applications of Absorption Spectroscopy709
- 23.4.2 Medical Applications of Absorption Spectroscopy709
- 23.5 Evanescent Wave Spectroscopy711
- 23.5 Evanescent Wave Spectroscopy711
- 23.5.1 Introduction711
- 23.5.1 Introduction711
- 23.5.2 Experimental Setups712
- 23.5.2 Experimental Setups712
- 23.5.3 Chemical Sensing714
- 23.5.3 Chemical Sensing714
- 23.5.4 Biochemical Sensing715
- 23.5.4 Biochemical Sensing715
- 23.6 Fiber Optic Thermal Sensing717
- 23.6 Fiber Optic Thermal Sensing717
- 23.6.1 Fiber Optic Thermal Sensor718
- 23.6.1 Fiber Optic Thermal Sensor718
- 23.6.2 Optical Fiber Radiometry720
- 23.6.2 Optical Fiber Radiometry720
- 23.7 Thermal Imaging722
- 23.7 Thermal Imaging722
- 23.7.1 Infrared Imaging and Tomography in Minimally Invasive Procedures725
- 23.7.1 Infrared Imaging and Tomography in Minimally Invasive Procedures725
- References727
- References727
- CH$Chapter 24: Mechanical Strength and Reliability of Glass Fibers735
- CH$Chapter 24: Mechanical Strength and Reliability of Glass Fibers735
- 24.1 Introduction735
- 24.1 Introduction735
- 24.2 Review of Glass Properties736
- 24.2 Review of Glass Properties736
- 24.2.1 Noncrystallinity, the Glass Transition (Tg), and Relaxation Processes736
- 24.2.1 Noncrystallinity, the Glass Transition (Tg), and Relaxation Processes736
- 24.2.2 Brittleness, Hardness, and Cracking738
- 24.2.2 Brittleness, Hardness, and Cracking738
- 24.2.3 Composition Effects740
- 24.2.3 Composition Effects740
- 24.3 Mechanical Properties744
- 24.3 Mechanical Properties744
- 24.3.1 Strength744
- 24.3.1 Strength744
- 24.3.2 Fatigue756
- 24.3.2 Fatigue756
- 24.3.3 Aging758
- 24.3.3 Aging758
- 24.3.4 Nonsilicate Glasses760
- 24.3.4 Nonsilicate Glasses760
- 24.3.5 Photonic Crystal or ‘‘Holey Fibers’’763
- 24.3.5 Photonic Crystal or ‘‘Holey Fibers’’763
- 24.4 Coatings765
- 24.4 Coatings765
- 24.4.1 General Comments and Polymer Coatings765
- 24.4.1 General Comments and Polymer Coatings765
- 24.4.2 Metal Coatings765
- 24.4.2 Metal Coatings765
- 24.4.3 Inorganic Coatings765
- 24.4.3 Inorganic Coatings765
- 24.5 Handling and Post-Draw Processing767
- 24.5 Handling and Post-Draw Processing767
- 24.5.1 Fiber Stripping767
- 24.5.1 Fiber Stripping767
- 24.5.2 Fiber Cleaving768
- 24.5.2 Fiber Cleaving768
- 24.5.3 Splicing770
- 24.5.3 Splicing770
- 24.5.4 Polishing772
- 24.5.4 Polishing772
- 24.5.5 Soldering/Pigtails772
- 24.5.5 Soldering/Pigtails772
- 24.5.6 Recovery of Handling Damage: Etching773
- 24.5.6 Recovery of Handling Damage: Etching773
- 24.6 Fractography774
- 24.6 Fractography774
- 24.7 Proof-Testing and Reliability775
- 24.7 Proof-Testing and Reliability775
- 24.7.1 Minimum Strength Design776
- 24.7.1 Minimum Strength Design776
- 24.7.2 Failure Probability Design776
- 24.7.2 Failure Probability Design776
- Acknowledgments778
- Acknowledgments778
- References778
- References778
- IDX$Index783
- IDX$Index783
This book is a comprehensive contributed volume that aims to describe and explain the design, fabrication, operating characteristics, and specific applications of the most popular and useful types of specialty optical fibers. These “specialty fibers include any kind of optical fiber that has been architecturally manipulated to diverge from a conventional structure. For instance, metal-coated fibers can be utilized for bandwidth improvement, and hollow core fibers offer more controllable dispersion for sensitive medical procedures.
Applications for these specialty fibers abound in the biomedical, sensors, and industrial fields, as well as in more traditional communications capacities. This book will act as a specialty fiber “guided tour, hosted by the top names in the discipline. The globally renowned editors, Drs. Mendez and Morse, have extensive experience in research, academia, and industry.
*Completely covers biomedical and industrial sensor technology with emphasis on real world applications
*Comparative studies of pros and cons of all fiber types with relation to test and measurement, mechanical properties and strength, and reliability
*Easy to access essential facts and details at the begining of each chapter
Applications for these specialty fibers abound in the biomedical, sensors, and industrial fields, as well as in more traditional communications capacities. This book will act as a specialty fiber “guided tour, hosted by the top names in the discipline. The globally renowned editors, Drs. Mendez and Morse, have extensive experience in research, academia, and industry.
*Completely covers biomedical and industrial sensor technology with emphasis on real world applications
*Comparative studies of pros and cons of all fiber types with relation to test and measurement, mechanical properties and strength, and reliability
*Easy to access essential facts and details at the begining of each chapter