Spectral Imaging of the Atmosphere
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Table of contents
- Cover
- Copyright Pageiv
- Contentsvii
- Prefacexiii
- Chapter 1. Observing Atmospheric Radiation1
- 1.1 Atmospheric Radiation1
- 1.2 Measuring Atmospheric Radiation8
- 1.3 The Scope of Spectral Imaging12
- 1.4 One-Dimensional (Vertical) Spatial Information13
- 1.5 Two-Dimensional (Horizontal–Vertical) Information16
- 1.6 Three-Dimensional Information18
- 1.7 Spectral Information20
- 1.8 Temporal Information26
- 1.9 Preview28
- 1.10 Problems29
- Chapter 2. Spectral Concepts30
- 2.1 Introduction30
- 2.2 The Spectral Concept31
- 2.3 Formal Statement of the Fourier Transform33
- 2.4 Fundamental Properties of the Fourier Integral35
- 2.5 Doing a Fourier Integral Without Integration36
- 2.6 Building Up a Set of Fourier Transforms37
- 2.7 Convolutions and Correlations38
- 2.8 The Dirac Delta Function and the Dirac Comb39
- 2.9 The Discrete Fourier Transform41
- 2.10 The Autocorrelation Function and Power Spectral Density44
- 2.11 Optical Devices as Linear Dynamical Systems45
- 2.12 The Diffraction Grating as a Linear Dynamical System47
- 2.13 The Fabry–Perot Etalon as a Linear Dynamical System51
- 2.14 Problems52
- Chapter 3. Instrument Responsivity and Superiority54
- 3.1 Responsivity of an Elementary Photometer54
- 3.2 The Measurement of Irradiance57
- 3.3 Responsivity for Line and Continuum Sources57
- 3.4 Photometer Calibration59
- 3.5 Generalized Definition of Responsivity61
- 3.6 Jacquinot’s Definition of Étendue62
- 3.7 Resolving Power and the Superiority of Spectral Imagers63
- 3.8 Dispersion, Classification and Nomenclature66
- 3.9 Problems68
- Chapter 4. Imaging Concepts70
- 4.1 Elementary Detectors and Noise70
- 4.2 Scanning Satellite Imager72
- 4.3 Weather Satellite Imagers76
- 4.4 Introduction to Array Detectors80
- 4.5 The Charge Coupled Device (CCD) Detector81
- 4.6 Spectral Response and Materials87
- 4.7 Considerations Specific to Infrared Array Detectors88
- 4.8 Other Types of Array Detectors89
- 4.9 Early Array Detector Imagers92
- 4.10 CCD Satellite Imagers95
- 4.11 Summary99
- 4.12 Problems100
- Chapter 5. The Fabry–Perot Spectrometer102
- 5.1 Introduction102
- 5.2 The Idealized Etalon103
- 5.3 The Real Etalon107
- 5.4 Elementary Fabry–Perot Spectrometer Configuration108
- 5.5 The Spherical Fabry–Perot Spectrometer109
- 5.6 Scanning Methods for Fabry–Perot Spectrometers112
- 5.7 The Application of Fabry–Perot Spectrometers114
- 5.8 Applications of the Fabry–Perot Imager121
- 5.9 Problems127
- Chapter 6. The Michelson Interferometer129
- 6.1 Historical Background129
- 6.2 Basic Concept130
- 6.3 Spectral Resolution133
- 6.4 Field of View134
- 6.5 The Real Michelson Interferometer135
- 6.6 Sampling the Interferogram135
- 6.7 Superiority of the Michelson Interferometer136
- 6.8 Scanning Methods for the Ordinary Michelson Interferometer137
- 6.9 Some Atmospheric Applications of the Michelson Interferometer139
- 6.10 Field Widening142
- 6.11 Problems149
- Chapter 7. Multiplexers and Modulators151
- 7.1 Spectral Operating Modes151
- 7.2 Multiplexers152
- 7.3 Modulators154
- 7.4 Problems166
- Chapter 8. Doppler Michelson Interferometry168
- 8.1 The Measurement of Doppler Temperature168
- 8.2 The Measurement of Doppler Wind172
- 8.3 Phase Stepping Interferometry173
- 8.4 The Wide-Angle Michelson Interferometer175
- 8.5 Cube Corner Doppler Michelson Interferometer176
- 8.6 Achromatizing a Field-Widened Michelson Interferometer177
- 8.7 Thermally Stabilizing a Solid Michelson Interferometer178
- 8.8 A Fully Compensated Solid Doppler Michelson Interferometer179
- 8.9 Defocusing a Wide-Angle Michelson Interferometer180
- 8.10 Polarizing Doppler Michelson Interferometers181
- 8.11 The Phase Quadrature Michelson Interferometer185
- 8.12 Optimized Reflective Wide-Angle Phase-Stepping MI187
- 8.13 Problems189
- Chapter 9. Operational Atmospheric Spectral Imagers191
- 9.1 Introduction191
- 9.2 The Wind Imaging Interferometer (WINDII)191
- 9.3 ERWIN: An E-Region Wind Interferometer207
- 9.4 MICADO – Michelson Interferometer for Coordinated Auroral Doppler Observations211
- 9.5 The High-Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI)213
- 9.6 CLAES: The Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer on UARS220
- 9.7 MOPITT – Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere223
- 9.8 Problems227
- Chapter 10. Future Atmospheric Spectral Imagers230
- 10.1 The TIMED Doppler Imager (TIDI)230
- 10.2 The Mesospheric Imaging Michelson Interferometer (MIMI)235
- 10.3 The Stratospheric Wind Interferometer for Transport Studies (SWIFT)240
- 10.4 The Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (ACE)248
- 10.5 The Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS)251
- 10.6 Problems254
- Chapter 11. Grating Spectrometers as Spectral Imagers255
- 11.1 Introduction255
- 11.2 Fundamental Aspects of the Diffraction Grating Spectrometer257
- 11.3 Selected Airglow Missions Accomplished258
- 11.4 Selected Atmospheric Missions Accomplished266
- 11.5 Future Atmospheric Missions using Grating Spectrographs271
- 11.6 Spatial Heterodyne Spectroscopy (SHS)274
- 11.7 Problems277
- Chapter 12. Postscript279
- References281
- List of Symbols297
- List of Acronyms and Abbreviations300
- Author Index305
- Subject Index310
Optical instruments are routinely employed to obtain a wealth of information about the atmosphere, including its composition, temperature, and winds. A bewildering variety of optical instruments have been proposed over the years, making it difficult to decide which instrument should be chosen to make a specific measurement. Spectral Imaging of the Atmosphere traces the historical development of both spectral and imaging methods and places them in a unified framework relevant to observations of the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. The underlying concepts of various measurement methodologies are presented and paired with appropriate applications. A selection of specific spectral imaging instruments, appropriate to illustrate each conceptual type, is described in detail.
Shepherd's work provides both scientists and engineers with an in-depth understanding of the fundamental concepts they need to know in order to plan a program of atmospheric measurements. Expected future methods and developments are also presented. Problems designed to test and enhance the reader's understanding of the material are included in each chapter.
Shepherd's work provides both scientists and engineers with an in-depth understanding of the fundamental concepts they need to know in order to plan a program of atmospheric measurements. Expected future methods and developments are also presented. Problems designed to test and enhance the reader's understanding of the material are included in each chapter.