The Art of Cryogenics: Low-Temperature Experimental Techniques
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Table of contents
- Table of Contentsv
- Prefacexiii
- PART I1
- Chapter 1 Vacuum Techniques3
- 1.1 Introduction3
- 1.2 Vapour pressure5
- 1.3 Mean free path and viscosity6
- 1.4 Gas flow7
- 1.4.1 Conductance of an orifice and of a pipe for molecular flow9
- 1.4.2 Conductance of an orifice and of a pipe for viscous flow10
- 1.5 Evacuation of a lumped volume11
- 1.6 Vacuum pumps12
- 1.6.1 Rotary vane oil-sealed mechanical pump13
- 1.6.2 Booster pumps14
- 1.6.3 Scroll pumps15
- 1.6.4 Sorption pumps17
- 1.6.5 Oil diffusion pumps17
- 1.6.6 Turbomolecular pumps20
- 1.6.7 Molecular drag pumps22
- 1.7 Other vacuum components23
- 1.8 Pressure gages26
- 1.8.1 Total-pressure gages26
- 1.8.2 McLeod gage27
- 1.8.3 Bourdon gage28
- 1.8.4 Diaphragm gage28
- 1.8.5 Thermal conductivity gages29
- 1.8.6 Hot cathode ionization gage29
- 1.8.7 Cold cathode gage31
- 1.9 Measurement of partial pressures32
- 1.9.1 Leak detectors32
- References33
- PART II35
- Chapter 2 Cryoliquids37
- 2.1 Cryogenics: Introduction and history37
- 2.2 Cryoliquids40
- 2.2.1 Liquid oxygen and hydrogen40
- 2.2.2 Liquid nitrogen42
- 2.2.3 Liquid helium43
- 2.2.4 Helium physics properties45
- 2.2.4.1 Helium vapour pressure and latent heat of evaporation45
- 2.2.4.2 Helium specific heat47
- 2.2.4.3 Transport properties of liquid 4He: thermal conductivity and viscosity51
- References53
- Chapter 3 Properties of Solids at Low Temperature55
- 3.1 Introduction55
- 3.2 Specific heat56
- 3.3 Lattice specific heat56
- 3.4 Electronic specific heat58
- 3.5 Electronic specific heat in superconducting materials59
- 3.6 Magnetic specific heat62
- 3.7 Specific heat due to the amorphous state66
- 3.8 Data of specific heat69
- 3.9 Thermal expansion71
- 3.10 Thermal conductivity73
- 3.10.1 Phonons75
- 3.10.2 Electron thermal conductivity77
- 3.11 Superconducting metals80
- 3.12 Data of low-temperature thermal conductivity81
- 3.13 The Wiedemann–Franz law83
- References84
- Chapter 4 Heat Transfer and Thermal Isolation89
- 4.1 Introduction89
- 4.2 Selection of materials of appropriate thermal conductivity89
- 4.3 Heat switches91
- 4.3.1 Gas heat switches91
- 4.3.2 Superconducting heat switches92
- 4.3.3 Other heat switches93
- 4.4 Contact thermal resistance94
- References100
- PART III103
- Chapter 5 Cooling Down to 0.3K105
- 5.1 Introduction106
- 5.2 Transport and storage vessels106
- 5.3 Liquid 4He in the cryostats107
- 5.3.1 Cool-down period108
- 5.3.2 Constant temperature period108
- 5.3.2.1 Heat conduction108
- 5.3.2.2 Heat radiation108
- 5.3.2.3 Conduction by gas particles110
- 5.3.2.4 Thermoacoustic oscillations111
- 5.4 4He cryostats111
- 5.4.1 Cryostats for T>4.2K111
- 5.4.2 Cryostats for 1.3K <T<4.2K112
- 5.5 3He cryostats114
- 5.5.1 3He refrigerator with internal pump115
- 5.6 Accessories117
- 5.6.1 N2 transfer tubes117
- 5.6.2 4He transfer tubes117
- 5.6.3 Liquid-level detectors119
- 5.7 Mechanical refrigerators120
- 5.7.1 Introduction120
- 5.7.2 Coolers using counterflow heat exchangers121
- 5.7.2.1 Pressure drop121
- 5.7.2.2 Heat transfer121
- 5.7.2.3 Efficiency and length122
- 5.7.2.4 Construction123
- 5.7.2.5 Other liquefier details124
- 5.7.3 The Collins helium liquefier125
- 5.7.4 Klimenko cycle125
- 5.7.5 Coolers using turbo-expanders126
- 5.7.6 Brayton cycle127
- 5.7.7 Coolers using regenerative heat exchangers128
- 5.7.8 Philips Stirling cycle128
- 5.7.9 Gifford–McMahon130
- 5.8 Pulse tube refrigerators131
- 5.8.1 Introduction131
- 5.8.2 Two compression methods for the PTR133
- 5.8.3 Simplified operation principle of PTRs135
- 5.8.4 Cooling power137
- 5.8.5 Multistage PTRs139
- References139
- Chapter 6 Dilution Refrigerators143
- 6.1 Introduction143
- 6.2 Properties of 3He–4He liquid mixture144
- 6.3 The classic DR147
- 6.4 The J–T DR153
- 6.5 Practical operations with a DR156
- 6.6 DR in high magnetic fields157
- 6.7 Dry DR158
- 6.8 No-gravity dilution158
- References160
- Chapter 7 Other Refrigerators163
- 7.1 Introduction163
- 7.2 Pomeranchuck refrigerator163
- 7.2.1 The strange behaviour of 3He164
- 7.3 Adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator167
- 7.4 Adiabatic nuclear demagnetization169
- 7.5 Electronic refrigeration170
- References170
- PART IV173
- Chapter 8 Temperature Scales and Temperature Fixed Points175
- 8.1 Introduction175
- 8.2 Reference fixed points176
- 8.3 The ITS 90178
- 8.4 The provisional Low-Temperature Scale 2000181
- 8.5 NBS-SRM 767a, 768 and SRD 1000 fixed point devices184
- 8.6 APPENDIX: Superconductive transitions and influence of purity and magnetic fields187
- References190
- Chapter 9 Low-Temperature Thermometry193
- 9.1 Introduction193
- 9.2 Gas thermometry194
- 9.2.1 Constant volume gas thermometry195
- 9.2.2 Acoustic gas thermometry196
- 9.2.3 Dielectric constant gas thermometry197
- 9.3 Vapour pressure thermometry198
- 9.4 3He melting curve thermometry199
- 9.5 Thermocouples200
- 9.6 Resistance thermometry202
- 9.6.1 Metal thermistors202
- 9.6.2 Semiconductors, carbon and metal oxide thermistors203
- 9.6.2.1 Doped germanium resistors204
- 9.6.2.2 Carbon resistors205
- 9.6.2.3 Thick-film RuO2 resistors206
- 9.6.2.4 Zirconium oxinitride207
- 9.6.2.5 Junction diodes208
- 9.6.3 Traps in resistance thermometry208
- 9.7 Noise thermometry211
- 9.8 Dielectric constant thermometry212
- 9.9 Paramagnetic salt thermometry215
- 9.10 Nuclear orientation thermometry216
- 9.11 Magnetic thermometry with nuclear paramagnets219
- 9.12 Coulomb blockade thermometry219
- References221
- Chapter 10 Instrumentation for Cryogenics225
- 10.1 Magnets225
- 10.1.1 Superconducting magnets225
- 10.1.2 Magnet wires226
- 10.1.3 Magnet specifications226
- 10.1.4 Persistent mode227
- 10.1.5 Power supplies for magnets228
- 10.2 Radio frequency shielding and filtering228
- 10.2.1 Electric and magnetic fields228
- 10.2.2 Superconducting shields229
- 10.2.3 Electromagnetic interference filtering229
- 10.3 Bridges231
- 10.4 The synchronous demodulator (lock-in)232
- 10.5 Temperature control237
- 10.6 Low-noise cold amplifiers238
- References240
- PART V243
- Chapter 11 Measurement of the Properties of Solids at Low Temperature245
- 11.1 Introduction245
- 11.2 Measurement of the thermal conductivity246
- 11.3 Measurement of the thermal conductivity of A6061-T6 and A1050 between 4.2 and 77K249
- 11.3.1 Introduction249
- 11.3.2 Experiment and results249
- 11.4 Thermal conductivity of copper at very low temperatures252
- 11.4.1 Introduction252
- 11.4.2 Experiment253
- 11.4.3 Results255
- 11.5 Measurement of the thermal conductivity of Torlon257
- 11.5.1 Introduction257
- 11.5.2 Thermal conductivity of Torlon 4203 in the 0.08–5K temperature range257
- 11.5.3 Thermal conductivity of Torlon 4203 between 4.2 and 300K259
- 11.5.3.1 Comparison among the power passing through the sample and the spurious power contributions263
- 11.5.3.2 Thermal contacts to the sample263
- 11.5.3.3 Error budget264
- References264
- Chapter 12 Measurements of Heat Capacity267
- 12.1 Introduction267
- 12.2 Measurement methods268
- 12.2.1 Heat pulse technique268
- 12.2.2 AC calorimetry270
- 12.2.3 Time constant (relaxation) method270
- 12.2.4 Dual slope method270
- 12.2.5 Thermal bath modulation271
- 12.2.6 Measurement constrains271
- 12.3 Example of ‘classical’ set up for the measurement of heat capacities271
- 12.4 Heat capacity of a TeO2 single crystal between 0.06 and 0.28K272
- 12.4.1 Thermal conductance of the sample to the thermal bath274
- 12.4.2 Measurement of the heat capacity275
- 12.4.3 Results276
- 12.5 Measurement of the specific heat of Torlon between 0.15 and 4.2K277
- 12.5.1 Experimental technique277
- 12.5.2 Results279
- 12.5.3 Discussion280
- 12.6 Measurement of heat capacity of NTD Ge thermistors282
- 12.6.1 Introduction282
- 12.6.2 NTD process and realization of thermistors282
- 12.6.3 Experimental technique283
- 12.6.4 Results284
- 12.6.5 Discussion285
- References287
- Chapter 13 Measurements of Thermal Expansion289
- 13.1 Introduction289
- 13.2 A simple interferometric dilatometer290
- 13.3 Thermal expansion of Torlon between 4.2 and 295K292
- References295
- PART VI297
- Chapter 14 Practical, Industrial and Space Applications of Cryogenics299
- 14.1 Introduction299
- 14.2 Industrial and technical use of cryoliquids299
- 14.3 Biological and medical applications300
- 14.4 Space cryogenics301
- 14.5 Cold electronics303
- References305
- Chapter 15 Low-Temperature Detectors307
- 15.1 Introduction307
- 15.2 Cryogenic sensors309
- 15.2.1 Resistance sensors309
- 15.2.1.1 NTD Ge sensors309
- 15.2.1.2 Electrical contacts310
- 15.2.1.3 Carrier (electron–phonon) decoupling312
- 15.2.2 TES314
- 15.3 Examples of cryogenic detectors315
- 15.3.1 Calorimeters316
- 15.3.2 CUORICINO detector model316
- 15.4 Infrared bolometers320
- 15.4.1 Simplified calculation of bolometer responsivity323
- 15.4.1.1 Example: design and realization of an infrared bolometer operating at 0.3K324
- 15.4.1.2 Bolometer components325
- 15.4.1.3 Note about infrared radiation filters327
- References327
- Chapter 16 Large Cryogenic Experiments331
- 16.1 Introduction331
- 16.2 Gravitational waves334
- 16.2.1 GW detectors336
- 16.2.1.1 Introduction336
- 16.2.1.2 Resonant mass detectors and resonant transducers337
- 16.3 MiniGRAIL339
- 16.3.1 Cryogenics for MiniGRAIL340
- 16.4 Neutrino Physics342
- 16.4.1 The DBD344
- 16.5 CUORE345
- 16.6 CUORICINO348
- References353
- Index357
Cryogenics is the study of low temperature interactions - temperatures well below those existing in the natural universe.
The book covers a large spectrum of experimental cases, including basic vacuum techniques, indispensable in cryogenics. Guidance in solving experimental problems and numerous numerical examples are given, as are examples of the applications of cryogenics in such areas as underground detectors and space applications. Updated tables of low-temperature data on materials are also presented, and the book is supplemented with a rich bibliography.
Key Features include:
- Experiments described in technical detail
- Description of newest cryogenic apparatus
- Applications in multidisciplinary areas
- Data on cryogenic properties of new materials
- Current reference review
Researchers (graduate and above) in the fields of physics, engineering and chemistry with an interest in the technology and applications of low-temperature measurements, will find this book invaluable.
Key Features include:
- Experiments described in technical detail
- Description of newest cryogenic apparatus
- Applications in multidisciplinary areas
- Data on cryogenic properties of new materials
- Current reference review
The book covers a large spectrum of experimental cases, including basic vacuum techniques, indispensable in cryogenics. Guidance in solving experimental problems and numerous numerical examples are given, as are examples of the applications of cryogenics in such areas as underground detectors and space applications. Updated tables of low-temperature data on materials are also presented, and the book is supplemented with a rich bibliography.
Key Features include:
- Experiments described in technical detail
- Description of newest cryogenic apparatus
- Applications in multidisciplinary areas
- Data on cryogenic properties of new materials
- Current reference review
Researchers (graduate and above) in the fields of physics, engineering and chemistry with an interest in the technology and applications of low-temperature measurements, will find this book invaluable.
Key Features include:
- Experiments described in technical detail
- Description of newest cryogenic apparatus
- Applications in multidisciplinary areas
- Data on cryogenic properties of new materials
- Current reference review