The Psychology of Learning and Motivation
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Table of contents
- Contentsv
- Contributorsix
- Prefacexi
- Chapter 1: The Strategic Regulation Of Memory Accuracy And Informativeness1
- I. Introduction1
- A. Everyday Versus Laboratory Approaches to Memory2
- B. Competing Goals of Memory Reporting: Accuracy Versus Informativeness5
- II. The Strategic Control of Memory Reporting: A Metacognitive Framework6
- A. The Basic Model: Control of Report Option8
- B. Empirical Evidence12
- C. QAP Methodology18
- D. QAP or Type-2 SDT?27
- III. Applications of the Framework29
- A. The Recall-Recognition Paradox30
- B. Children's Eyewitness Testimony31
- C. Memory Impairment in Old Age33
- D. Clinical Memory Impairment35
- E. Encoding Specificity and Memory Cueing36
- F. Psychometric Testing37
- IV. Expanding the Framework: Control of Memory Grain Size39
- A. Accuracy-Informativeness Trade-Off40
- B. Satisficing Versus Utility-Maximizing Models of Grain Control41
- C. Empirical Evidence42
- D. Control of Grain Size in Episodic Memory Reporting Over Time45
- V. Toward an Integrated Model of Grain Size and Report Option48
- A. An Integrated Satisficing Model48
- B. To Coarsen or Withhold?50
- C. The Need for an Informativeness Criterion51
- VI. Conclusion53
- Acknowledgments53
- References53
- Chapter 2: Response Bias in Recognition Memory61
- I. Introduction61
- II. Measuring Response Bias63
- A. Measuring Response Bias in a Single Condition63
- B. Comparing Bias Among Conditions with Equal Sensitivity65
- C. Comparing Bias Among Conditions with Unequal Sensitivity66
- III. Explaining Response Bias67
- A. Seeking Invariants Within the Data67
- B. Divining Subject Strategy68
- IV. Between-Group Criterion Differences72
- V. Between-List Criterion Differences72
- VI. Within-Test Criterion Shifts74
- A. Evidence Against Shifts: Strength Manipulations74
- B. Evidence for Shifts: Processing and Stimulus Manipulations76
- VII. An Interim Summary78
- VIII. Distribution Shifts Masquerading as Criterion Shifts79
- A. Study-Test Delay80
- B. Context Effects80
- C. Identifying the Change81
- IX. Designs with Multiple Responses81
- A. The Remember-Know Paradigm82
- B. Confidence Ratings84
- X. Conclusions and Recommendations88
- A. Choose the Right Sensitivity Measure88
- B. Choose the Right Response-Bias Measure88
- C. Apply an Explicit Model to the Data89
- D. Consider the Use of Feedback and/or a Forced-Choice Design89
- E. Use Ratings and Plot ROCs90
- Acknowledgment90
- References90
- Chapter 3: What Constitutes a Model of Item-Based Memory Decisions?95
- I. Introduction95
- A. What Are Item-Based Memory Decisions?95
- B. One Dimensional Signal Detection Theory: A Simple Decision Model96
- II. The Characteristics and Neural Substrates of Item-Based Memory Decisions100
- A. How Labile Is the Recognition Criterion During Testing?100
- B. Is the Relationship Between Confidence and Accuracy Monotonic?113
- C. Is the Recognition Criterion Informed by Individual Skill?126
- D. Context Versus Item Memory Judgments and PFC132
- III. Conclusion„What Constitutes a Model of Item-Based Memory Decisions?138
- Acknowledgments140
- References140
- Chapter 4: Prospective Memory and Metamemory: The Skilled Use of Basic Attentional and Memory Proces145
- I. Introduction145
- II. What Is Different About Prospective Memory?146
- III. Is There a Specialized Prospective Memory System?147
- IV. Using Basic Memory and Attentional Processes in the Service of Prospective Memory148
- A. Use of Controlled (or Directed) Recognition Processes149
- B. Spontaneous Recognition Processes151
- C. Spontaneous, Reflexive Associative Memory Processes152
- V. The Multiprocess Theory: Contextual Factors Determining the Utility of Each Process154
- VI. Metamemory and Prospective Memory155
- A. Sensitivity to the Extent to Which the Ongoing Task Encourages Focal Processing of the Target Cue156
- B. Importance of the Prospective Memory Task160
- C. Delaying Execution of Retrieved Intentions161
- D. Sensitivity to Costs of Monitoring164
- VII. Summary and Future Directions165
- References169
- Chapter 5: Memory is More than just Remembering: Strategic Control of Encoding, Accessing Memory, an175
- I. Introduction175
- II. Interacting with Memory177
- III. Strategic Decisions About Encoding178
- A. What Gets Encoded?179
- B. How Does Information Get Encoded?181
- C. Learning About Encoding185
- D. Control of Encoding as a Means of Control over Memory188
- IV. Strategic Decisions About Memory Access189
- A. Means of Accessing Memory Traces190
- B. Decisions About How to Access Memory192
- C. Learning About Memory Access199
- D. Strategic Memory Access as a Cognitive Skill201
- V. Postaccess Decision Processes202
- A. Suppression of Output202
- B. Output Grain204
- C. Criterion Placement and Adjustment in Recognition204
- D. Learning About How to Make Memory Decisions207
- E. Postaccess Decision Processes as a Means of Control Over Memory209
- VI. Conclusions209
- References212
- Chapter 6: The Adaptive and Strategic Use of Memory By Older Adults: Evaluative Processing and Value225
- I. Overview225
- II. A Selective Review of the Research on Memory and Lifespan Development226
- A. Life Span Theories of Cognitive Aging226
- B. Motivated Cognition and Goals of Older Adults229
- III. Strategic Control and Value as Memory Modifiers for Older Adults231
- A. Value as a Memory Modifier for Older Adults231
- B. Selectivity, Value, and the Use of Memory by Older Adults234
- C. Evaluative Processing as Skilled Cognition in Old Age?239
- D. Value, Motivation, and Emotional Priority for Older Adults241
- IV. Model, Review and New View of Value, Memory, and Aging242
- A. A Model of Evaluative Processing and Value-Directed Remembering242
- B. General Slowing, Metacognition, and Evaluative Processing245
- C. Associative Memory Impairments and Value246
- D. Recollection, Familiarity, and Value247
- E. False Memory and Flexible Remembering249
- F. Proper Names as Low Value Information?250
- G. Memory, Value, and Grain Size at Retrieval252
- V. Implications of Value on Memory and Aging254
- A. Brain Mechanisms, Value, Memory, and Aging254
- B. Expertise as Adaptive Control and Skilled Cognition in Old Age Revisited256
- C. Individual Differences Among Older Adults: The Control and Use of Value Assignment257
- D. Value-Directed Remembering and Implications for Training259
- VI. Summary and Conclusions260
- Acknowledgments262
- References263
- Chapter 7: Experience is a Double-Edged Sword: A Computational Model of The Encoding/Retrieval Trade271
- I. Introduction271
- II. When and Why Experience Adversely Affects Memory Retrieval273
- A. The Fan Effect273
- B. The SAC Memory Model: The Role of Experience in Recognition Memory277
- C. The SAC Model of Word Recognition and the Word Frequency Mirror Effect281
- D. Converging Evidence for SAC Explanation Using Other Types of Stimuli286
- E. Summary of How Experience Hurts Retrieval290
- III. When and Why Experience Facilitates Memory Encoding291
- A. Augmentation of SAC: How WM and Prior Experience Interact to Affect Ease of Encoding294
- B. Illustrations of Model Fits with the New Encoding Assumptions297
- C. The Consequences of Minimal "Lifelong" Experience on Encoding300
- D. Extremely Low-Frequency Stimuli: Experience Enables Unitization (Chunking)301
- IV. General Discussion303
- A. Explaining Related Phenomena with Our Model304
- V. Summary and Conclusions305
- Acknowledgments306
- References306
- Chapter 8: Toward an Understanding of Individual Differences in Episodic Memory: Modeling the Dynami313
- I. A Possible Relationship Between the Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off and Individual Differences in Associ313
- II. Traditional Testing Procedures318
- III. Classical Models of Associative Recognition319
- IV. Modeling the Accuracy and Latency of Associative Recognition323
- A. Encoding of Associative Information324
- B. Familiarity-Based Retrieval324
- C. Decision326
- D. Familiarity-Based Performance327
- E. Recollection333
- F. Dual-Process Decision Strategies335
- V. Conclusions345
- Acknowledgments346
- References346
- Chapter 9: Memory as A Fully Integrated Aspect of Skilled and Expert Performance351
- I. Introduction351
- II. Outline of the Chapter353
- A. Historical Background to the Traditional Approach Searching for Basic Abilities354
- B. The Powerful Effects of Some Types of Practice357
- C. Toward a Scientific Study of High Levels of Skill and Expert Performance359
- D. Capturing Reproducibly Superior Performance Under Standardized Conditions360
- E. Applying the Expert-Performance Approach to Identify the Mediating Mechanisms361
- F. The Representative Rehearsed Performance and Its Relation to Memory Performance366
- G. Expert Performance in Domains with Less Predictable Situations and Its Relation to Memory Perform368
- H. Expert Performance Involving Calculation and Its Relation to Memory Performance370
- III. Summary372
- IV. Conclusion373
- Acknowledgment375
- References375
- Index381
- Contents of Recent Volumes391
The view of memory use as skilled performance embraces the interactive nature of memory and higher order cognition. In considering the contexts in which memory is used, this book helps to answer such questions as:
• If asked where I live, how do I decide on a street address or city name?
• What influences my selection in a criminal lineup besides actual memory of the perpetrator?
• Why do expert golfers better remember courses they've played than amateur golfers?
Chapters in this volume discuss strategies people use in responding to memory queries- whether and how to access memory and how to translate retrieved products into responses. Coverage includes memory for ongoing events and memory for prospective events-how we remember to do future intended actions. Individual differences in memory skill is explored across people and situations, with special consideration given to the elderly population and how strategies at encoding and retrieval can offset what would otherwise be declining memory.
* An intergrative view of memory, metamemory, judgment and decision-making, and individual differences
* Relevant to both applied concerns and basic research
* Articles written by expert contributors
• If asked where I live, how do I decide on a street address or city name?
• What influences my selection in a criminal lineup besides actual memory of the perpetrator?
• Why do expert golfers better remember courses they've played than amateur golfers?
Chapters in this volume discuss strategies people use in responding to memory queries- whether and how to access memory and how to translate retrieved products into responses. Coverage includes memory for ongoing events and memory for prospective events-how we remember to do future intended actions. Individual differences in memory skill is explored across people and situations, with special consideration given to the elderly population and how strategies at encoding and retrieval can offset what would otherwise be declining memory.
* An intergrative view of memory, metamemory, judgment and decision-making, and individual differences
* Relevant to both applied concerns and basic research
* Articles written by expert contributors