The Triazine Herbicides
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Table of contents
- Cover
- Contentsv
- Forewordix
- List of Contributorsxi
- Acknowledgmentsxv
- Chapter 1 The Triazine Herbicides: A Milestone in the Development of Weed Control Technology1
- Summary1
- Changes in Agriculture and the Importance of the Triazine Herbicides1
- Environmental Benefits of the Triazines5
- Yield and Economic Improvements Using Atrazine as an Example8
- Recent Scientific Reviews and Reregistrations8
- Contribution of Triazines to Agricultural Practices, Basic Research, Safety Testing, and Stewardship10
- Conclusions10
- References11
- Chapter 2 History of the Discovery and Development of Triazine Herbicides13
- Summary13
- Introduction13
- Selection and Brief History of the First Triazine Herbicides21
- Status of the Triazines as of 196925
- A Brief History of Cyanazine28
- References28
- Chapter 3 Production, Development, and Registration of Triazine Herbicides31
- Summary31
- Production: A Brief History of Triazine Manufacturing32
- Registrations of Chlorotriazines32
- Registrations of Methoxytriazines37
- Registrations of Methylthiotriazines38
- Registrations of Hexazinone, Metamitron, and Metribuzin39
- Triazine Introduction in the United States39
- Regulatory Reviews41
- Conclusions43
- References43
- Chapter 4 Weed Control Trends and Practices in North America45
- Summary45
- The First 200 Years: 1600–180046
- Innovation in the 1800s46
- Innovations Since 190046
- Conclusion56
- References56
- Chapter 5 Farming Trends and Practices in Northern Europe57
- Summary57
- A Short History of Agriculture in Europe57
- Corn in Europe59
- Use of Triazine in Corn60
- Amenity Weed Control61
- Conclusion61
- References61
- Chapter 6 Biology and Ecology of Weeds and the Impact of Triazine Herbicides63
- Summary63
- Ecology and Biology of Weeds63
- Development of Weed Management Systems67
- Technology of Chemical Weed Control68
- Conclusions70
- References70
- Chapter 7 Plant Uptake and Metabolism of Triazine Herbicides73
- Summary73
- Introduction73
- Uptake and Distribution of Triazine Residues73
- Early Research74
- Metabolism of Chloro-s-triazines77
- Metabolism of Thiomethyl-s-triazines85
- Metabolism of Methoxy-s-triazines89
- Metabolism of Atypical Triazines90
- Conclusion96
- References96
- Chapter 8 The Mode of Action of Triazine Herbicides in Plants101
- Summary101
- Identification of the Target Protein102
- The Compounds and Quantitative Structure–Function Relationships104
- The Three-Dimensional Orientation of the Triazines in the Herbicide-Binding Protein of PS II104
- Triazine Resistance: Amino Acid Substitutions in the D1 Protein106
- Cross-Resistance to Other Herbicides in Triazine Resistance106
- Significance of the Rapid Turnover of the Herbicide-Binding Protein for the Mode of Action of Triazi107
- Acknowledgement108
- References108
- Chapter 9 Basis of Crop Selectivity and Weed Resistance to Triazine Herbicides111
- Summary111
- Introduction111
- Triazine Selectivity in Crops and Weeds112
- Triazine Resistance in Weeds114
- Conclusions116
- References116
- Chapter 10 Distribution and Management of Triazine-Resistant Weeds119
- Summary119
- History of Triazine-Resistant Weeds119
- Development and Distribution of Triazine Resistance120
- Fitness of Triazine Resistance124
- Genetics of Triazine Resistance124
- Role of Herbicide Metabolism in Triazine Resistance125
- Control and Management of Triazine-Resistant Weeds126
- Potential Risk from Cross-Resistance and Multiple-Resistance126
- Conclusions128
- References128
- Chapter 11 Weeds Resistant to Nontriazine Classes of Herbicides133
- Summary133
- Introduction134
- Global Status and Importance of Herbicide Resistance134
- Triazines are Important Tools to Manage Weeds Resistant to Other Herbicides145
- Conclusions146
- References146
- Chapter 12 The Use of Economic Benefit Models in Estimating the Value of Triazine Herbicides153
- Summary153
- Study Components154
- Past Triazine Studies if Atrazine were Unavailable154
- Baseline Conditions155
- Yield and Cost Changes155
- Aggregate Analysis157
- The Ciba and Novartis Benefits Studies158
- Conservation Tillage Cost and Yield Changes159
- Aggregate Analysis for Ciba and Novartis Models160
- Minor Crop and Off-Farm Effects160
- Total Costs if Atrazine and Triazines were not Available in the United States160
- Conclusions161
- References161
- Chapter 13 Benefits of Triazine Herbicides in Corn and Sorghum Production163
- Summary163
- The Early Years: 1954 Through 1969163
- The Middle Years: 1970 Through 1994166
- Since the Initiation of Special Review: 1994 to the Present167
- Conclusion173
- References173
- Chapter 14 Benefits of Triazine Herbicides in Ecofallow175
- Summary175
- Introduction175
- The Geographical Setting175
- Conversion of Native Prairies to Cropland176
- Dust–Mulch Fallow176
- Stubble–Mulch Fallow176
- Replacing Mechanical Fallow with Chemical Fallow177
- Chemical–Fallow, Ecofallow, Ecofarming, Reduced-Till, Lo-Till, and No-Till177
- Herbicides for Ecofallow178
- Central Role of Water-Use Efficiency178
- Plant Residue Effects178
- Storing Precipitation as Plant-Available Soil Water179
- Comparison of Crop Rotations and Tillage Systems179
- Insect and Plant Disease Control180
- Limited Irrigation and High Plains Farming180
- Role of Triazine Herbicides in the Great Plains180
- Conclusions181
- References182
- Chapter 15 Weed Control in Sugarcane and the Role of Triazine Herbicides185
- Summary185
- Short Course on Sugarcane186
- Weeding Sugarcane: Historical Perspectives187
- Weeds and Sugarcane Biology188
- Herbicide Development and Chemical Control in Sugarcane189
- Weed Challenges and Herbicide Use in Other Countries193
- Acknowledgments196
- References196
- Chapter 16 Benefits of Triazine Herbicides and Other Weed Control Technology in Citrus Management199
- Summary199
- Introduction199
- Global Production of Citrus199
- Weeds in Citrus Production200
- Methods of Weed Control and Management202
- Success Factors for Herbicides206
- Herbicide Application in Citrus206
- Conclusion206
- References207
- Chapter 17 Triazine Herbicides for Weed Control in Fruit and Nut Crops211
- Summary211
- Introduction211
- Costs and Benefits of Weed Control212
- The Orchard, Vineyard, and Small Fruit Weed Problems212
- Chemical Weed Control214
- Herbicides Used in Orchards, Vineyards, and Small Fruit216
- Acknowledgments220
- References221
- Chapter 18 Benefits of Triazine Herbicides in the Production of Ornamentals and Conifer Trees225
- Summary225
- The Importance of Weed Management in the Production of Ornamentals225
- Role of the Triazine Herbicides in the Production of Ornamental Plants227
- Importance of Weed Management in Production of Forest Conifers230
- Role of Triazine Herbicides in Production of Forest Conifers231
- Conclusions232
- References232
- Chapter 19 Benefits of Triazine Herbicides in Turf235
- Summary235
- Weed Control in Turf235
- Alternatives to the Triazine Herbicides239
- Conclusions240
- References240
- Chapter 20 Methods of Analysis for Triazine Herbicides and Their Metabolites243
- Summary243
- Introduction244
- Extraction Technology244
- Detection Technology248
- Immunoassay252
- Continued Technological Advances260
- Conclusions261
- Acknowledgment261
- References261
- Chapter 21 Triazine Soil Interactions275
- Summary275
- Introduction275
- Mechanisms for Triazine Interactions with Soil Materials276
- Quantification of Triazine Interactions with Soils284
- Conclusions292
- References292
- Chapter 22 Microbial Degradation of s-Triazine Herbicides301
- Summary301
- Introduction301
- Early Research on s-Triazine Interactions with Microorganisms304
- Evolution of Microbial Abilities to Degrade Chlorinated s-Triazines305
- Genetics of s-Triazine Degradation306
- Enzymology of s-Triazine Degradation310
- Biodegradation of s-Triazines in the Environment312
- Conclusions321
- References321
- Chapter 23 Nonbiological Degradation of Triazine Herbicides: Photolysis and Hydrolysis329
- Summary329
- Introduction329
- Triazine Herbicides330
- Photolysis331
- Photolytic Degradation of the Triazine Herbicides332
- Photolysis of the Triazine Herbicides in Aqueous Solution333
- Photolysis of the Triazinone Herbicides343
- Photolysis of the Triazinedione Herbicides344
- Removal of Triazines from Water by Photolysis345
- Abiotic Hydrolysis of the Triazine Herbicides347
- References349
- Chapter 24 Soil Movement and Persistence of Triazine Herbicides355
- Summary355
- Introduction355
- Transport356
- Herbicide Persistence369
- References374
- Chapter 25 Hazard Assessment for Selected Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Triazine Herbicides387
- Summary387
- Introduction387
- Acute Toxicity Studies388
- Toxicity After Repeat Exposure388
- Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity390
- Mutagenicity390
- Carcinogenicity Bioassays390
- Overall Hazard Assessment395
- References395
- Chapter 26 Mode of Action of Atrazine for Mammary Tumor Formation in the Female Sprague-Dawley Rats399
- Summary399
- Introduction399
- Conclusions407
- References409
- Chapter 27 Dietary Exposure Assessment of the Triazine Herbicides413
- Summary413
- Background413
- The Risk Assessment Process414
- Estimation of Residues in Animal Commodities417
- Triazine Monitoring Data419
- Conclusion421
- References421
- Chapter 28 Probabilistic Assessment of Laboratory-Derived Acute Toxicity Data for the Triazine Herbi425
- Summary425
- Introduction425
- Methods426
- Results433
- References435
- Chapter 29 Atrazine and Simazine Monitoring Data in Community Water Systems in the United States dur439
- Summary439
- Introduction439
- Methods441
- Results442
- Exposure Reduction in Drinking Water446
- Conclusions446
- References448
- Chapter 30 A Decade of Measuring, Monitoring, and Studying the Fate and Transport of Triazine Herbic451
- Summary451
- Introduction452
- Triazine Herbicide Usage453
- Water-Quality Studies454
- Occurrence of Triazine Degradation Products466
- Chemistry and Transport of Triazine Degradation Products in Water469
- References473
- Chapter 31 Probabilistic Risk Assessment Using Atrazine and Simazine as a Model477
- Summary477
- Introduction478
- Conclusion494
- Glossary of Terms495
- References497
- Chapter 32 Progress in Best Management Practices501
- Summary501
- Introduction501
- The Impact of Erosion502
- Policies and Government Programs503
- Adoption and Effectiveness of BMPs505
- Crop Nutrient Management511
- Integrated Pest Management512
- Conclusions512
- References514
- Chapter 33 Environmental Benefits of Triazine Use in Conservation Tillage519
- Summary519
- Introduction519
- Development of Conservation Tillage519
- Triazine Herbicides in Conservation Tillage520
- Conclusions525
- References525
- Chapter 34 Role of Triazine Herbicides in Sustainable Agriculture: Potential of Nonchemical Weed Con527
- Summary527
- Introduction527
- Current Atrazine Use528
- Nonchemical Weed Control Techniques529
- Farmers Currently Practicing Nonchemical Weed Control536
- Evaluation of Aggregate Studies537
- Conclusions537
- References538
- Chapter 35 Environmental Stewardship: The Roots of a Family Farm541
- Summary541
- Early Beginnings of US Agriculture and Conservation541
- Early Beginning of the McCauley Family Farm542
- Progress in Corn Production542
- Land Stewardship543
- Effects of World War II544
- Progress in University, Government, and Industry Research544
- New Millennium and Beyond545
- References546
- Appendix549
- Label Changes for Atrazine in the United States573
- Index575
- A575
- B576
- C576
- D577
- E578
- F578
- G578
- H578
- I579
- K579
- L579
- M579
- N580
- O580
- P580
- Q581
- R581
- S581
- T583
- U583
- V584
- W584
- Y584
- Color Plates585
Over the past 50 years, triazines have made a great impact on agriculture and world hunger by assisting in the development of new farming methods, providing greater farming and land use capabilities, and increasing crop yields. Triazines are registered in over 80 countries and save billions of dollars a year. The Triazine Herbicides is the one book that presents a comprehensive view of the total science and agriculture of these chemicals. With emphasis on how the chemicals are studied and developed, reviewed, and used at the agricultural level this book provides valuable insight into the benefits of triazine herbicides for sustainable agriculture.
* Presents previously unpublished information on the discovery, development and marketing of herbicides
* Includes a vital section on the origin, use, economics and fate of triazine herbicides
* Covers benefits of triazines in corn and sorghum, sugarcane, citrus, fruit and nut crops
* Establishes best management practice and environmental benefits of use in conservation tillage
* Presents previously unpublished information on the discovery, development and marketing of herbicides
* Includes a vital section on the origin, use, economics and fate of triazine herbicides
* Covers benefits of triazines in corn and sorghum, sugarcane, citrus, fruit and nut crops
* Establishes best management practice and environmental benefits of use in conservation tillage